I  I li 


!l    ii 


ill 


III 


iiliiili 


iiiilllli, ,„„„„ ,„„ 

111  !    ,.,., 

"    llillliiliiil 


iiiilillliili 


ill 




|||!iniiii{iiiii||i'l!!|||>illilllllPl|!!'':i: 

iiiiiiiiiiiil      !i 


ill 

i! 


liiiiiiiii 


mill!; 


GIFT  or 
Dr.    Merton  E,   Hill 


http://\A/WW;a^OiVe':6ra/d^t^il^^^^^ 


CLASSROOM   MANAGEMENT 


-y'^y^' 


CLASSROOM  MANAGEMlir^f' -^'^ 


ITS    PRINCIPLES   AND 
TECHNIQUE 


BY 


WILLIAM   CHANDLER   BAGLEY 

PROFESSOR  OF   EDUCATION,  UNIVERSITY  OF   ILLINOIS 
AUTHOR  OF  "THE  EDUCATIVE  PROCESS" 


THE   MACMILLAN   COMPANY 

LONDON :  MACMILLAN  &  CO.,  Ltd. 
1911 

AU  rights  reserved 


EDUCATION  DEPTi, 

Copyright,  1907, 
By  the  macmillan  company 


Set  up  and  electrotyped.    Published  April,  1907. 
Reprinted  August,  September,  October,  1907; 
January,  June,  November,  December,  1908 ;  July, 
September,  1909  ;  January,  April,  December,  1910 ; 
July,  191 X. 


Norinootr  ^ress 

J«  8.  Onshing  &  Co.  —  Berwick  &,  Smith  Co. 

Norwood,  Mass.,  U.S.A. 


PREFACE 

This  book  is  intended  primarily  for  students  of  edu- 
cation in  universities,  training  scho  -Is,  and  normal 
schools,  who  are  preparing  for  classroom  teaching, 
especially  in  the  elementary  grades.  It  aims,  first,  to 
furnish  the  prospective  teacher  with  a  compendium  of 
precepts  that  will  aid  him  in  the  mastery  of  technique ; 
secondly,  to  interpret  these  precepts  in  the  light  of 
accepted  psychological  principles ;  and,  thirdly,  to  unite 
both  precepts  and  principles  into  a  coherent  and  fairly 
comprehensive  system. 

The  data  have  been  gathered  from  four  sources: 
first  and  chiefly  from  observing  the  work  of  efficient 
and  successful  classroom  teachers ;  secondly,  from  text- 
books and  treatises  upon  the  subject  of  school  manage- 
ment and  classroom  practice,  numerous  references  to 
which  will  be  found  in  the  footnotes  and  at  the  close 
of  the  chapters ;  thirdly,  from  the  writer's  own  experi- 
ence; and  fourthly,  from  general  psychological  prin- 
ciples. Data  of  the  last-named  class  have,  in  every 
case,  been  subjected  to  actual  test  before  being  in- 
cluded in  this  volume.  The  writer  is  convinced  that 
a  successful  science  of  education  can  never  be  pro- 
duced by  working  backward  from  highly  wrought 
theory   to    concrete   practice.      This   procedure    is    a 


jClP.fiSfk'^O 


VI  PREFACE 

survival  of  the  deductive  habit  of  mind  which  science 
has  long  since  discarded  as  totally  inadequate  to  the 
discovery  of  truth.  Valid  principles  of  teaching  can 
be  derived  only  from  observation  and  induction  based 
upon  successful  school  practice.  The  expert  teacher 
learns  through  a  selective  process  of  trial  and  error  how 
most  effectively  to  deal  with  the  pupils  under  his  care. 
If  a  given  educational  practice  is  effective,  there  must 
be  back  of  it  somewhere  a  valid  principle.  It  has  been 
the  writer*s  attempt,  first  to  find  the  successful  practice, 
and  then  to  discover  the  principle  that  governs  it.  Of 
the  difficulties  to  be  encountered  in  this  method  of 
procedure,  the  writer  is  fully  cognizant ;  of  the  dangers, 
he  is  not  unaware.  A  given  practice  may  be  effective 
in  one  school  and  ineffective  in  another.  Many  of  the 
precepts  here  presented  will  not  be  applicable  to  all 
schools,  but  the  writer  is  convinced  that  practically  all 
are  applicable  to  the  typical  American  classroom.  It 
is  the  teacher  who  has  charge  of  such  a  classroom  that 
the  book  is  primarily  intended  to  aid ;  not  that  it  will 
make  the  work  of  this  teacher  expert  from  the  outset ; 
no  book  could  accomplish  that  end;  but  it  may  serve 
to  shorten  the  period  of  necessarily  amateurish  prac- 
tice,—  to  eliminate  some  of  the  early  errors,  and  to 
augment,  both  in  quality  and  in  quantity,  the  successful 
efforts. 

The  manuscript  has  been  read  by  Professor  Amos  W. 
Farnham,  of  the  Oswego  State  Normal  School,  to  whom 
the  writer  is  heavily  indebted  for  many  valuable  sug- 
gestions.    Acknowledgment  must  also  be  made  of  the 


PREFACE  vii 

aid  and  inspiration  gained  from  the  writer's  association 
with  the  schoolmen  of  St.  Louis  during  his  service  as 
a  grammar  school  principal  in  that  city,  and  especially 
from  the  fortnightly  sessions  of  the  St.  Louis  School- 
masters' Club.  To  State  Superintendent  W.  E.  Har- 
mon, of  Helena,  Montana,  he  likewise  owes  a  debt  of 
gratitude  for  a  fresh  and  stimulating  example  of  the 
attitude  that  one  may  take  toward  the  detailed  and 
seemingly  trivial  problems  of  Schoolcraft. 

For  especial  courtesies  in  the  furnishing  of  data  and 
illustrative  material,  acknowledgment  is  due  to  Assistant 
Superintendent  C.  C.  Rathmann,  of  St.  Louis ;  Super- 
intendent C.  L.  Robbins,  of  the  Montana  State  Normal 
College;  Superintendent  John  Kennedy,  of  Batavia, 
N.Y. ;  and  to  Miss  C.  V.  Sinnamon,  Miss  L.  L.  Love- 
ridge,  Miss  Katherine  Hayes,  and  Miss  Jennie  McGrath, 
of  the  Oswego  State  Normal  School. 

State  Normal  and  Training  School, 
Oswego,  New  York,  March,  1907. 


CONTENTS 

PAGB 

Introduction i 

I.  The  classroom  the  unit  of  educational  system.. 
2.  The  problem  of  classroom  management  has  to  do  with 
the  effective  training  of  children  in  the  mass ;  funda- 
mentally a  problem  of  economy.  3.  Complex  character  of 
education  makes  a  clear  perspective  necessary.  4.  Anal- 
ogy between  school  and  factory;  limitations  of  this 
analogy.  5.  Ultimate  aim  of  education  must  be  consid- 
ered. 6.  Social  efficiency  as  the  aim.  7.  Difficulties  of 
testing  results  of  education  with  reference  to  this  aim. 
8.  Can  these  difficulties  be  overcome  ?  9.  General  plan 
of  treatment. 

PART   I 

THE   ROUTINE  FACTORS   OF  CLASSROOM 
MANAGEMENT 

CHAPTER  I 

Routine  and  Habit 13 

I .  System  and  organization  as  solvents  of  the  problem 
of  waste.  2.  Instinct  and  habit  as  representing  organiza- 
tion and  system  in  the  individual.  3.  The  law  of  habit- 
building.  4,  Analogies  between  habit  in  the  individual 
and  routine  or  custom  in  the  group.  5.  Application  of 
law  of  habit  to  group  activities. 

CHAPTER  II 

Initiating   Routine:   Preventing  Waste  by  Starting 

Aright 20 

I.  Importance  of  a  " good  start."  2.  Preparing  for  the 
first  day  of  school.    3.  Preliminary  arrangements.    4.  The 


CONTENTS 


first  day's  work.  5.  The  first  intermissions.  6.  Prob- 
lems of  the  first  day  in  ungraded  schools. 

CHAPTER  III 

Mechanizing  Routine 30 

I.  Problem  of  the  chapter :  to  justify  routine  and  deter- 
mine the  extent  of  its  application.  2.  The  two  opposing 
theories  of  school  management  as  regards  routine :  state- 
ment of  the  "anti-machine"  doctrine.  3.  Arguments 
against  mechanical  organization.  4.  Arguments  in  favor 
of  mechanical  organization.  5.  Conclusion:  mechanical 
organization  may  be  applied  under  certain  restrictions. 
6.  Details  to  be  subjected  to  routine  organization :  (a)  pass- 
ing of  lines ;  fire  drills.  7.  (d)  Signals.  8.  (c)  Passing 
to  the  blackboard.  9.  (d)  Passing  to  the  recitation 
bench.       10.     (<?)    Distributing    and    collecting    wraps. 

11.  (/)  Distributing  and  collecting  books  and  materials. 

12.  (g)  Orderly  arrangement  of  books  and  materials  in 
desks.  13.  (^)  Insuring  tidiness  in  the  classroom. 
14.  (/)  Leaving  the  room.  15.  (J)  Neatness  of  written 
work  and  blackboard  work.     16.  Monitorial  positions. 

CHAPTER  IV 

The  Daily  Program 50 

I.  Factors  involved  in  construction  of  program. 
2.  (a)  The  length  of  school  year.  3.  (d)  The  length  of 
the  school  day.  4.  (c)  Time  devoted  to  recesses  and 
intermissions.  5.  (^)  Subjects  to  be  taught.  6.  (^)  Rela- 
tive importance  of  the  various  subjects.  7.  Prevailing 
practice  in  evaluating  subjects.  8.  (/)  Relation  of  subject- 
matter  to  fatigue.  9.  The  general  factors  of  fetigue. 
10.  (g)  The  place  of  general  exercises.  11.  (/t)  The 
number  of  pupils  and  the  number  of  classes  ;  typical  graded 
school  programs;  typical  ungraded  school  program. 
12.  Danger  of  placing  too  many  subjects  in  curriculum; 
law  of  diminishing  returns  in  education.  13.  Necessity 
pf  holding  to  the  program. 


CONTENTS  XI 

CHAPTER  V 

PAGE 

Regularity  and  Punctuality  of  Attendance  .  .71 
I.  Waste  involved  in  delinquencies  of  attendance. 
2.  Regular  attendance  should  become  a  habit  with  each 
pupil.  3.  What  constitutes  a  necessary  delinquency? 
4.  Initiating  habits  of  regular  attendance :  (a)  enforcing 
attendance  statutes  and  rulings.  5.  (b)  Encouraging  at- 
tendance by  prizes,  privileges,  etc.  6.  {c)  Competitions 
in  attendance.  7.  Tardiness.  8.  Fortifying  habits  by 
ideals.  9.  Should  delinquencies  in  attendance  detract 
from  pupils'  scholarship  standing? 

CHAPTER  VI 

Preserving  Hygienic  Conditions  in  the  Classroom  .  81 
I.  Relation  of  unhygienic  conditions  to  waste.  2.  Hy- 
gienic habits  of  posture ;  characteristics  of  hygienic  sit- 
ting position.  3.  Law  of  habit-building  as  applied  to 
posture.  4.  The  writing  posture.  5.  Posture  in  stand- 
ing. 6.  Hygiene  of  eyesight.  7.  Fatigue,  relaxation, 
and  exercise.  8.  Personal  cleanliness.  9.  Contagious 
diseases.     10.  Moral  heahh. 

CHAPTER  VII 

Order  and  Discipline 92 

I .  Problem  of  discipline  concerned  primarily  with  wel- 
fare of  the  class  as  a  whole.  2.  Authority  the  first  con- 
dition of  effective  discipline ;  factors  in  securing  authority : 
{a)  courage.  3.  XJ>)  Tact.  4.  (c)  Persistence.  5.  {d) 
Scholarship.  6.  {e)  Justice.  7.  (/)  Good  nature. 
8.  Other  factors  involved  in  securing  order:  (a)  the 
teacher's  voice.  9.  (3)  Mechanized  routine.  10.  (c) 
Keeping  pupils  occupied.  11.  {d)  Substitution  vs.  re- 
pression. 

CHAPTER  VIII 

Penalties 105 

I .  Government  must  always  provide  penalties  for  offenses 
against  order.    2.  Relation  of  inhibition  to  order  in  the 


XU  CONTENTS 

PAGE 

classroom.  3.  Spencer's  doctrine  of  natural  punishments. 
4.  Inadequacies  of  Spencer's  theory.  5.  Necessity  of 
helping  nature  out  in  inhibition  of  unsocial  tendencies. 
6.  Discipline  a  different  problem  in  classroom  manage- 
ment from  what  it  would  be  in  management  of  an  indi- 
vidual pupil.  7.  Unsocial  impulses  must  be  eliminated 
at  any  cost.  8.  Characteristics  of  an  effective  penalty. 
9.  Corporal  punishment  as  a  penalty;  advantages  and 
limitations.  10.  Rules  for  application  of  corporal  punish- 
ment. II.  Corporal  punishment  at  most  only  a  tentative 
and  extreme  measure.  12.  The  reaction  against  corporal 
punishment ;  consideration  of  chief  arguments  that  have 
been  advanced  against  its  employment.  13.  Citations  from 
authorities  upon  corporal  punishment.  14.  Regulation  of 
corporal  punishment :  {a)  necessity  of  a  standard  method. 
15.  {b)  Application  by  the  principal.  16.  {c)  Presence  of 
witnesses.  17.  {d)  Corporal  punishment  must  not  be 
made  a  spectacle  for  other  children.  18.  (e)  Corporal 
punishment  in  general  to  be  limited  to  pre-adoleecent  years. 
19.  Other  penalties :  {a)  rebukes.  20.  (b)  Loss  of  privi- 
leges. 21.  (jc)  Suspensions.  22.  (d)  Expulsions. 
23.  {e)  Sending  to  the  principal. 


PART   II 

JUDGMENT  FACTORS   IN   CLASSROOM 
MANAGEMENT 

CHAPTER  IX 

The  Problem  of  Attention 137 

I.  Problem  of  Part  II:  consideration  of  problems  that 
cannot  be  reduced  to  routine.  2.  Inattention  as  a  source 
of  waste.  3.  Contribution  of  psychology  of  attention  to 
education.  4.  The  doctrine  of  ends  :  the  immediate  end  ; 
primary  passive  attention;  the  first  law.  5.  The  remote 
end  and  active  attention :  the  second  law.     6.  The  remote 


CONTENTS  xiii 


FACK 


end  becomes  immediate :  the  third  law ;  secondary  passive 
attention.  7.  The  first  and  second  laws  Oi  especial  im- 
portance in  classroom  management. 


CHAPTER  X 

The  Problem  of  Attention  (Continued)  :  The  Opera- 
tion OF  the  First  Law 147 

I,  Primary  passive  attention  determined  by  instinct. 

2.  (a)  The  instinctive  desire  for  change  and  variety. 

3.  Application  to  classroom  practice  in  providing  variety 
of  stimuli.  4.  Dangers  involved  in  applying  this  prin- 
ciple;  lack  of  persistence.  5.  (d)  The  play  instinct; 
field  of  application  in  school  work.  6.  Advantages  and 
dangers  of  educating  through  play  activities.  7.  (c)  The 
instinct  of  curiosity ;  application  in  devices.  8.  School 
use  of  curiosity  should  be  temperate.  9.  (^)  The  instinc- 
tive liking  for  bright  colors,  sharp  contrasts,  and  intense 
stimuli  of  all  kinds ;  examples  of  expression  of  this  instinct 
in  school  children.  10.  (e)  The  instinct  of  construction ; 
application  in  securing  attention  to  objective  processes. 

1 1 .  Other  instincts  to  be  discussed  in  following  chapter. 

12.  Summary. 

CHAPTER  XI 

The  Problem  of  Attention  (Continued)  :  The  Opera- 
tion OF  the  Second  Law 158 

I .  Relation  of  instinct  to  active  attention ;  instinctive 
desire  makes  idea  of  remote  end  directive  over  present 
impulse.  2.  Idea  of  remote  end  technically  termed  an 
incentive.  3.  Positive  and  negative  incentives;  hope  of 
future  reward  or  fear  of  future  pain  the  criterion  for  classi- 
fication. 4.  In 'general,  incentives  used  in  school  should 
make  appsal  from  positive  standpoint.  5.  But  this  does 
not  mean  that  negative  incentives  have  no  place.  6.  In- 
centives in  which  the  predominant  appeal  is  negative. 
7.  Difficulty  of  applying  negative  incentives.    8.  Negative 


4 


XIV  CONTENTS 


incentives   should   be    applied    only   in    extreme   cases. 
9.  Summary. 

CHAPTER  XII 

The  Problem  of  Attention  (Continued)  :  Application 

OF  the  Second  Law  through  Positive  Incentives  .    168 

I.  What  is  meant  by  an  "acquired  interest";  incen- 
tives high  or  low,  as  they  involve  an  acquired  interest  or 
a  primitive  instinct.  2.  Scheme  for  classifying  positive 
incentives.  3.  (a)  Incentives  that  make  a  positive  appeal  to 
the  instinct  of  emulation :  (i)  Competitive  prizes  of  intrin- 
sic value ;  use  of  such  prizes  is  bad  practice.  4.  (2)  Com- 
petitive prizes  not  intrinsically  valuable ;  conditions  under 
which  these  may  be  effectively  applied.  5.  (3)  Immuni- 
ties :  in  general,  granting  of  immunities  from  school  tasks 
as  prizes  for  effort  is  bad  practice.  6.  (4)  Privileges: 
conditions  under  which  privileges  may  be  employed  as 
incentives.  7.  (5)  Exhibition  of  pupils'  work:  dangers 
and  limitations  of  this  incentive;  value  if  used  under 
restrictions.  8.  (6)  Grades,  marks,  and  promotions: 
reason  for  efficiency  of  these  incentives.  9.  Objections 
against  use  of  these  incentives.  10.  How  the  dangers 
may  be  counteracted.  1 1 .  Advantages  and  disadvantages 
of  the  grading  system.  12.  (3)  Incentives  that  make  a 
positive  appeal  to  the  social  instincts:  (i)  praise,  com- 
mendation, and  adulation ;  place  of  these  incentives. 
13.  Efficiency  of  these  incentives.  14.  (2)  Pupils'  pride 
in  the  good  name  of  the  school :  advantages  and  dangers ; 
how  to  be  used  in  small  schools.  15.  School  exhibits  as 
creating  an  esprit  de  corps.  16.  {c)  Ideals  as  incentives  : 
what  is  meant  by  an  ideal.  17.  The  psychology  of  ideals : 
relation  of  ideals  to  habits. 


CHAPTER  XIII 

The  Technique  of  Class  Instruction      .        .       .       .188 
I.  Method  of  instruction  in  its  relation  to  classroom 
management.     2.    Classroom   management  must  secure 


CONTENTS  XV 


attention  of  all  pupils  to  matter  in  hand.  3.  Greatest 
difficulty  is  attention  during  unsupervised  periods,  espe- 
cially in  the  study  lesson ;  hence  importance  of  technique 
of  text-book  instruction.  4.  Difficulties  of  text-book  in- 
struction. 5.  Divisions  of  the  text-book  lesson:  {a)  the 
assignment  and  its  two  functions:  (i)  to  clear  up  diffi- 
culties. 6.  Formal  difficulties  that  are  apt  to  be  trouble- 
some. 7.  (2)  To  develop  a  need  for,  or  interest  in, 
material  of  the  text.  8.  Assignments  which  stimulate 
curiosity.  9.  Assignments  which  give  the  "setting"  of 
selections.  10.  The  "lecture-assignment.'"  11.  The 
assignment  a  field  for  giving  oral  instruction  and  still 
making  effective  use  of  text-books.  12.  (J?)  The  study 
lesson:  as  test  of  the  assignment.  13.  The  technique  of 
the  study  lesson  :  (i)  study  questions  :  their  structure  and 
function.  14.  (2)  Study  topics.  15.  Written  work  in 
the  study  period  should  be  reduced.  16.  {c)  The  recita- 
tion lesson :  fundamental  principle,  "  Hold  pupils  respon- 
sible for  assigned  lesson."  17.  Question-and-answer  vs. 
topical  recitations.     18.  Rules  for  conduct  of  recitation. 

CHAPTER  XIV 

The  "Batavia  System"  of  Class-individual  Instruc- 
tion         214 

I.  Sources  of  waste  inherent  in  class  organization. 
2.  Necessity  for  a  compromise  between  individual  and 
class  instruction.  3.  The  Batavia  system  effects  such  a 
compromise ;  history  of  the  Batavia  movement.  4.  Sum- 
mary of  the  virtues  of  the  Batavia  system :  {a)  it  makes 
individual  work  a  definite  and  required  part  of  the  daily 
program ;  {b)  it  insists  that  best  teachers  give  individual 
instruction  ;  {c)  it  has  developed  a  technique  of  individual 
instruction.  5.  These  factors  safeguard  the  system  against 
inherent  dangers.  6.  Batavia  system  "makes  good"  in 
actual  test.  7.  General  applicability  of  Batavia  system  to 
present  organization  of  schools ;  the  "  doubly-alternating" 
program.     8.  Cautions.    9.  Summary. 


XVI  CONTENTS 


CHAPTER  XV 

Testing  Results  

I .  Can  the  test  of  actual  results  be  applied  to  the  work 
of  the  school?  2.  The  educated  individual  must  possess 
(a)  a  fund  of  habits.  3.  (^)  A  fund  of  knowledge. 
4.  (c)  A  fund  of  ideals.  5.  Conclusion:  habits  and 
knowledge  are  amenable  to  fairly  accurate  tests.  6.  Test- 
ing the  efficiency  of  habit-building :  (a)  purely  physical 
habits;  posture.  7.  Line-movements.  8.  (d)  Written 
work.  9.  Comparison  of  written  work  at  successive  stages 
of  development.  10.  Testing  habit-building  in  blackboard 
work.  II.  (c)  Habits  of  speech.  12.  (d)  Testing  habit- 
building  in  arithmetic:  (i)  accuracy.  13.  (2)  Rapidity. 
14.  (<?)  Testing  habit-building  in  spelling ;  the  results  of 
Cornman's  investigations.  15.  Automatically  correct 
spelling  the  test  of  effective  teaching  of  spelling.  16.  Test- 
ing knowledge ;  difficulty  of  establishing  a  true  standard. 
17.  The  formal  examination  as  a  test  of  knowledge ;  value 
of  the  examination  as  an  educative  process.  18.  Can  the 
examination  be  made  a  test  of  ability  to  apply  knowledge  ? 
19.  Structure  of  examination  questions  with  reference  to 
this  end.  20.  Examinations  should  test  ability  to  organize 
as  well  as  ability  to  apply.  21.  Modification  of  methods 
of  teaching  through  results  of  examinations.  22.  Marking 
examination  papers.    23.  Summary. 


CHAPTER  XVI 

The  Disposition  of  the  Teacher's  Time 

I.  Teacher  must  be  able  to  concentrate  a  maximum  of 
energy  upon  problems  of  class  work.  2.  Division  of  time 
between  prime  school  duties  and  accessory  school  duties. 
3.  The  out-of-school  duties  of  the  teacher:  (a)  profes- 
sional: (i)  preparing  for  school  work.  4.  Correcting 
written  exercises.  5.  (2)  Broader  professional  culture. 
6.  Professional  reading.  7.  Teachers'  associations. 
8.  (^)  Hygienic  duties.    9.  (^)  Civic  duties.     10.  (</)  So- 


CONTENTS  xvii 


PAGV 


dal  duties,  ii.  What  proportion  of  time  should  be 
devoted  to  social  diversion? 

CHAPTER  XVII 

The  Teacher's  Relation   to   Principal,   Supervisors, 

AND  Superintendent 261 

I .  Concentration  of  authority  and  responsibility  essen- 
tial to  efficiency  of  organized  effort ;  the  superintendent 
of  schools  as  the  center  of  authority  and  responsibility. 

2.  The  principal  of  the  building  and  his  responsibilities. 

3.  Unquestioned  obedience  the  first  principle  of  effective 
service.  4.  The  relation  of  the  teacher  to  special  super- 
visors.    5.  Supervision  of  rural  schools.    6.  Summary. 

CHAPTER  XVIII 

The  Ethics  of  Schoolcraft 267 

I.  Significance  of  the  term  "craft  ethics."  2.  Unsatis- 
factory condition  of  ethics  of  schoolcraft.  3.  Some  of  the 
ideals  and  standards  that  are  being  recognized  as  essential 
to  a  true  schoolcraft :  (a)  specialization  of  the  teacher's 
work.  4.  (d)  Members  of  the  teachers'  guild  must  legis- 
late for  themselves  in  craft  matters.  5.  (c)  True  school- 
craft will  not  make  excuses  for  inadequate  results.  6.  (d)  A 
true  craft  spirit  will  demand  high  standards  of  scholarship 
and  preparatory  training.  7.  (e)  It  must  be  insisted  that 
teaching  is  social  service.  8.  (/)  Dogmatism  and  pedan- 
try must  be  abjured.  9.  Teaching  a  constructive  as  well 
as  a  conservative  art. 

Appendix  A:    Suggestions   for  the  Study  of  Class- 
room Technique  through  Observation     .        .        .    275 

Appendix  B:  Pupil-government  and  the  School  City    290 

Appendix  C:  The  "Springfield  Questions"  in  Arith- 
metic       299 

Appendix  D  :  Pupils'  Written  Work  as  an  Index  of 
Growth 301 


CLASSROOM  MANAGEMENT:   ITS  PRIN- 
CIPLES AND  TECHNIQUE 

INTRODUCTION 

The  Problem  of  Classroom  Management 

I.  An  extensive  diffusion  of  education  among  the  people 
is  made  possible  by  dealing  with  children,  not  individually, 
but  in  masses.  Provided  that  they  are  approximately 
equal  in  age,  ability,  and  degree  of  attainment,  thirty 
pupils  can  be  simultaneously  trained  and  instructed  by  one 
teacher.  This  working  unit  of  the  educational  system  is 
termed  a  "class,"  a  '* grade,"  or  a  **room."  The  last 
term  is  perhaps  the  most  convenient  as  a  technical  desig- 
nation, for,  in  practice,  the  working  unit,  assembled  under 
the  supervision  of  one  teacher,  is  frequently  made  up  of 
two  or  more  distinct  classes  or  grades.  Whether  it  is  wise 
ever  to  divide  a  "room"  into  separate  classes  is  a  disputed 
point  in  educational  policy,  but  the  condition  is  well-nigh 
universal  in  American  schools,  and  may  be  considered  as 
representing  the  normal  type  of  classroom  organization. 

The  relative  merits  of  the  class  and  individual  systems  of 
instruction  will  be  discussed  in  greater  detail  in  a  later  section.^ 
It  should  be  said  at  this  point,  however,  that  the  class  system 
*  See  below,  ch.  xiv. 


2  CLASSROOM  MANAGEMENT 

has  certain  advantages  to  recommend  it  in  addition  to  the  fact 
that  it  permits  a  large  number  of  pupils  to  be  instructed  by  a 
single  teacher.  While  pupils  have  doubtless  been  gathered 
together  in  this  way  since  the  earliest  days  of  formal  education 
"  simultaneous  "  instruction  may  be  dated  from  1680,  when  it 
was  first  introduced  into  the  Christian  Brothers'  schools  by 
Father  La  Salle  of  Rheims,  the  founder  of  this  Society.  The 
practice  extended  gradually  to  other  schools,  until  to-day 
it  is  the  usual  method  of  school  organization  in  all  civilized 
countries.* 

2.  The  problem  of  classroom  management  has  to  do 
with  the  efifective  treatment  of  this  "room"  or  unit-group 
of  pupils.  Primarily  it  is  a  problem  of  economy :  it  seeks 
to  determine  in  what  manner  the  working  unit  of  the  school 
plant  may  be  made  to  return  the  largest  dividend  upon 
the  material  investment  of  time,  energy,  and  money. 
From  this  point  of  view,  classroom  management  may  be 
looked  upon  as  a  "business"  problem.  The  handling  of 
children  in  masses  is  its  central  point  of  interest.  How  to 
secure  the  best  results  from  an  educative  process  carried 
on  imder  this  condition  is  the  question  for  which  it  seeks 
an  answer. 

3.  In  a  complex  process,  like  education,  it  is  always 
necessary  to  keep  a  clear  perspective.    One  is  apt  to  con- 

*  Cf.  J.  Landon,  School  Management,  Boston,  1884,  p.  151:  "The 
system  was  early  employed  in  Austria,  and  soon  became  general  in  Hol- 
land and  Germany.  It  was  adopted  here  and  there  in  France  from  its 
first  introduction.  After  1840  it  began  to  extend  rapidly,  and  jt  is  now 
in  use  in  the  majority  of  French  schools.  ...  As  might  be  expected, 
the  various  schemes  of  simultaneous  organization  all  resemble  each  other 
in  general  features,  though  each  local  variety  has  its  peculiarities." 


INTRODUCTION  3 

fuse  means  and  ends :  the  means  are  concrete  and  tangible, 
the  ends  are  often  abstract  and  ideal.  Thus  the  teacher 
accepts  the  dictum  that  silence,  good  order,  "discipline," 
punctuality,  etc.,  are  self -justified  —  that  these  things  are, 
in  themselves,  real  ends  of  "school  keeping."  This  error 
of  perspective  may  not  work  injurious  results  under  normal 
conditions.  The  true  ends  of  good  order,  discipline,  etc., 
may  be  gained,  although  the  teacher  may  be  quite  unaware 
of  what  these  ends  really  are.  But  lack  of  perspective 
may  easily  cause  some  serious  misplacements  of  emphasis, 
if  not  more  disastrous  consequences,  under  exceptional 
conditions.  The  waves  of  fads  and  reforms  that  sweep 
through  the  educational  system  at  periodic  intervals  will 
have  but  little  detrimental  influence  upon  the  teacher 
whose  theoretical  foundations  are  firm  and  stable;  but 
the  teacher  who  lacks  secure  moorings  is  tossed  from  wave 
to  counter  wave,  until  he  either  loses  his  bearings  entirely 
or  collapses  from  mal  de  mer.  One  who  maintains  good 
order  and  discipline  for  no  other  reason  than  that  one  has 
been  told  that  it  is  "the  thing  to  do"  is  often  the  first  to 
fall  under  the  spell  of  the  faddist  who  proclaims  that  dis- 
ciplinary processes  unduly  repress  the  child ;  deprive  him 
of  the  spontaneity  and  freedom  that  are  his  dearest  birth- 
rights ;  and  are,  in  general,  to  be  looked  upon  as  relics  of 
barbarism. 

It  is  for  this  reason  that  an  adequate  foundation  in  educa- 
tional psychology  and  in  the  general  theory  of  education  is  so 
essential  to  every  teacher;  and  it  is  for  this  reason  that  every 
effort  should  be  made  to  discover  the  fundamental  laws  that 


4  CLASSROOM    MANAGEMENT 

underlie  the  educative  process  and  so  to  make  possible  an  edU' 
cational  psychology  upon  which  there  shall  be  universal  agree- 
ment. The  classroom  teacher  needs  a  sound  theoretical  foun- 
dation in  a  measure  that  is  not  even  approached  by  the  rank 
and  file  of  other  crafts  and  professions.  The  almost  infinite 
possibilities  of  education  make  the  influence  of  even  the 
humblest  subordinate  a  matter  of  tremendous  import,  jlf  op; 
portunities  are  neglected,  if  wrong  principles  are  applied,  if 
true  principles  are  misinterpreted,  conditions  may  result  which 
are  all  the  more  disastrous  because  their  insidious  character 
cannot  be  detected  perhaps  until  years  have  elapsed.  Even 
the  educational  psychology  that  is  now  available  is  sufficient 
to  develop  in  any  teacher  an  acute  sense  of  his  responsibility  if 
nothing  more.  And  a  sense  of  responsibility  will  do  much 
toward  preserving  one's  equilibrium  in  a  whirlwind  of  conflicting 
theories  and  antagonistic  practices. 

4.  The  "business"  concept  on  of  the  school  must  be 
viewed  in  this  perspective  of  means  and  ends.  The  school 
resembles  a  factory  in  that  its  duty  lies  in  turning  a  cer- 
tain raw  material  into  a  certain  desired  product.  It  differs 
from  a  factory  in  that  it  deals  with  living  and  active,  not 
with  dead  and  inert,  materials.  Because  of  this  vital  factor, 
the  material  with  which  the  school  deals  is  influenced  by 
all  the  forces  of  the  environment,  and  not  alone  by  those 
that  are  consciously  designed  to  mold  it  to  the  desired 
form.  Some  of  these  forces  —  those  of  the  home  and  of 
the  street,  for  example  —  are  largely  beyond  the  pale 
of  the  school's  influence.  There  are,  however,  certain 
activities  of  the  school  itself  which  exert  a  profound 
influence  over  the  pupiPs  life,  and  yet  which  are  not 
generally  recognized  by  teachers  as  vital   elements    in 


INTRODUCTION  $ 

the  educative  process.  School  studies  are  supposed  to 
"educate";  the  personality  of  the  teacher  is  recognized 
as  an  influencing  factor ;  and  the  notion  is  slowly  grow- 
ing that  the  physical  surroundings  of  the  pupil  —  the 
buildings,  the  walls  of  the  rooms,  the  hallways,  the 
yards  — '■  exert  a  formative  influence  that  cannot  be  neg- 
lected. But  even  those  who  will  agree  with  all  of  this 
sometimes  fail  to  appreciate  the  fact  that,  in  such  details 
as  passing  books  and  writing  materials,  passing  to  and 
from  the  blackboard,  getting  wraps,  preserving  silence  and 
good  order,  an  educative  influence  is  being  exerted  that 
may  equal  in  value  the  influence  of  lessons  and  recita- 
tions. 

This,  then,  is  the  factor  that  makes  school  management 
so  different  from  the  management  of  other  business  insti- 
tutions. The  very  jorms  that  school  management  adopts 
to  make  the  lessons  and  the  recitations  effective  are,  in 
themselves,  vital  factors  in  the  educative  process. 

For  example :  Assuming  that  a  thoroughgoing  mastery  of  the 
multiplication  tables  is  essential  to  the  educated  individual,  it 
becomes  the  province  of  classroom  management  to  see  to  it 
that  this  mastery  is  attained  by  all  of  the  members  of  a  given 
class  with  as  little  waste  of  time  and  effort  as  is  possible.  It 
may  be  proved  that  the  fear  of  an  examination,  or  of  failure, 
or  of  the  loss  of  a  privilege,  or  of  a  physical  punishment,  will 
result  in  an  intense  application  of  the  pupil  to  the  tables,  and 
so  insure  the  desired  mastery  with  a  minimal  expenditure  of 
time  and  of  the  teacher's  energy.  If  one  of  these  incentives 
were  found  to  work  most  economically,  the  problem  of  manage- 
ment in  this  connection  would,  superficially  speaking,  be  solved. 


6  CLASSROOM    MANAGEMENT 

But  it  will  be  readily  seen  that  an  incentive  might  be  thoroughly 
effective  in  this  narrow  and  superficial  way,  and  yet  work  an 
irremediable  injury  to  the  pupil. 

Again,  an  accurate  mastery  of  the  mechanics  of  reading  may 
be  assumed  as  essential  to  the  educated  individual.  Class- 
room management  must  provide  conditions  that  will  insure  this 
mastery.  Perhaps  nothing  leads  more  quickly  to  this  mastery 
than  to  have  each  pupil  in  the  class  watch  for  the  mistakes  that 
other  pupils  make,  and  point  out  the  correct  form  to  the  one 
who  is  in  error.  By  adopting  this  device,  the  teacher  can  assure 
himself  that  every  pupil  in  the  class  will  give  the  lesson  his 
undivided  attention,  and  that  every  pupil  who  reads  will  strive 
as  strenuously  as  he  can  to  avoid  mistakes.  The  desired  end 
is  gained — but  classroom  management  must  go  farther  than  the 
attainment  of  superficial  ends,  no  matter  how  desirable  these 
may  be.  It  must  inquire  into  the  effect  upon  the  pupil  of  the 
means  that  are  employed  to  reach  the  end.  It  must  consider 
the  net  results  —  which,  in  the  instance  cited,  will  probably  be 
detrimental  in  that  the  pernicious  habit  or  attitude  which  we 
characterize  as  hypercritical  or  pedantic  is  developed  by  the 
practice  in  question. 

Another  instance :  Punctuality  and  regularity  of  attendance 
are  essential  if  the  school  is  to  be  operated  with  a  minimum  of 
waste.  From  the  narrow  point  of  view,  classroom  management 
fulfills  its  function  in  this  regard  when  all  pupils  attend  regu- 
larly and  punctually  upon  all  the  sessions  of  the  school.  From 
the  narrow  point  of  view,  such  a  result  would  represent  the 
acme  of  efficiency  for  classroom  management;  but  it  is  clear 
that  the  strenuous  measures  that  would  be  essential  to  the  ful- 
fillment of  such  a  condition  would  work  injury  and  injustice 
out  of  all  proportion  to  the  value  of  the  result  obtained. 

5.  It  may  be  concluded,  therefore,  that  the  measures 
which  classroom  management  adopts  to  prevent  or  elimi- 


INTRODUCTION  7 

nate  waste  must  always  be  considered,  not  only  with  refer- 
ence to  the  specific  end  sought,  but  also  in  the  Hght  of  the 
much  broader  end  of  education  in  general. 

Can  the  ultimate  end  of  education  be  so  definitely  stated 
as  to  form  an  adequate  guide  or  criterion  for  questions  of 
this  sort  ?  This  depends  obviously  upon  the  character  of 
the  aim  that  one  adopts.  If  one  has  distinctly  in  mjnd 
certain  definite  and  tangible  quahties  that  must  be  pos- 
sessed by  the  educated  individual,  one's  judgment  as  to 
the  influence  of  certain  measures  upon  the  development  of 
such  an  individual  will  at  least  be  better  than  an  aimless 
practice  that  is  trusted  to  *'hit  upon"  the  right  procedure 
by  chance  or  accident  —  and  much  of  our  educational 
practice,  even  to-day,  could  be  subjected  to  this  stricture. 

6.  The  Aim  of  Education.  Fundamentally,  the  task  of 
the  school  is  to  fit  the  child  for  Ufe  in  civihzed  society. 
The  child,  when  he  comes  into  the  world,  is  not,  like  the 
young  of  most  animals,  adapted  by  nature  to  the  Hfe  that 
he  must  lead.  During  the  plastic  period  of  immaturity 
he  must  be  trained  and  instructed  in  order  to  enter,  at 
maturity,  upon  the  Hfe  that  is  represented  by  the  social 
world  into  which  he  is  bom.  Education  is  the  largest 
name  for  this  process,  and  educative  forces  consequently 
include  all  forces  that  influence  the  individual  to  this  end. 
School  education  is  only  a  specific  kind  of  education :  the 
education  represented  by  the  home,  the  church,  or  any 
other  social  institution  is  equally  justified  in  assuming 
the  same  name. 

In  general,  the  aim  of  the  school  may  be  formulated 


8  CLASSROOM    MANAGEMENT 

as  social  efficiency}  Whatever  the  school  undertakes  to 
accomplish  must  be  judged  in  the  light  of  this  standard. 
Not  only  must  the  materials  of  instruction  be  subjected 
to  this  test,  but  the  methods  of  instruction  must  not  exert 
an  unsocial  influence ;  and,  what  is  especially  important 
in  the  present  connection,  the  schemes  and  devices  of 
classroom  management  must  meet  satisfactorily  the  same 
requirements.  The  test  of  the  ultimate  aim  must  be 
apphed  at  every  point ;  otherwise  the  work  of  the  school 
will  lack  system  and  harmony,  and  adequate  results  will 
be  secured  only  through  the  operation  of  the  law  of 
chance. 

7.  It  is  not  to  be  assumed,  of  course,  that  a  rigid  appli- 
cation of  this  test  is  possible  in  the  present  state  of  our 
knowledge,  (a)  Not  all  authorities  are  agreed  upon  the 
essential  characteristics  of  the  socially  efiicient  individual. 
Nevertheless  there  is  sufficient  agreement  for  practical 
purposes.  Every  one  knows  that  such  qualities  as  honesty, 
self-control,  wilUngness  to  cooperate,  a  certain  measure  of 
amiabiUty,  and  a  certain  measure  of  altruism  or  social 
spirit,  are  essential  to  one  who  is  to  live  and  deal  with 
one's  fellows;  and  every  one  knows  that  the  antitheses 
of  these  qualities  tend  to  render  one  socially  inefficient. 
There  can  be  no  disagreement  upon  points  so  manifest 
as  these,  (b)  Again,  it  is  often  impossible  to  state  with 
certainty  whether  a  certain  method  or  a  certain  device 

*  See  the  theoretical  discussion  of  this  aim  in  the  writer's  Educative 
Process,  New  York,  1905,  ch.  iii;  cf.,  also,  M.  V.  O'Shea:  Education  as 
Adjustment,  New  York,  1903,  chs.  vi,  vii. 


INTRODUCTION  9 

will  operate  favorably  or  unfavorably  with  regard  to  these 
or  other  desired  quahties.  The  actual  results  of  the  teach- 
er's labor  cannot  be  accurately  determined  until  years  after 
the  work  has  been  done  ;  by  that  time,  it  may  be,  the 
methods  have  been  forgotten  and  the  teacher  himself  per- 
haps has  gone  to  his  reward.  But,  while  this  assertion  is 
not  to  be  doubted,,  it  is  none  the  less  true  that  sober  re- 
flection and  a  careful  weighing  of  probabiHties  will  enable 
one  to  judge  with  some  degree  of  accuracy ;  and  anything 
that  approaches  rigidity  and  exactness,  even  remotely,  is 
vastly  to  be  preferred  over  the  "  hit-or-miss "  manner  of 
deahng  with  troublesome  questions  that  has  so  long  made 
education  a  butt  of  ridicule  for  members  of  other  crafts 
and  professions. 

We  are  speaking  here  of  the  influence  upon  social  qualities 
of  the  methods  and  devices  of  instruction  and  management. 
The  same  question  may  be  asked  concerning  subject-matter 
of  instruction.  The  whole  problem  is,  beyond  doubt,  one 
of  the  most  intricate  and  involved  that  science  has  ever 
attempted  to  solve.  If  a  test  for  intellectual  growth  were 
sufiScient,  the  task  would  be  difiicult  enough;  but  intellectual 
growth  and  development  is  so  inextricably  bound  up  and 
wound  about  with  emotional  factors  practically  defying  analy- 
sis or  reduction  to  quantitative  and  numerical  terms,  that  a 
complete  and  satisfactory  solution  would  seem  to  be  far  in 
the  future.  Nevertheless,  the  difficulty  of  a  problem  is  not  a 
plausible  excuse  for  neglecting  it.  Here,  as  elsewhere  through 
the  realm  of  scientific  investigation,  patience  and  perseverance 
cannot  fail  gradually  to  overcome  what  seem  at  the  outset  to 
be  insuperable  obstacles;  and  here,  as  elsewhere,  the  grave 
danger  lies  in  assuming  a  problem  to  be  insoluble  and  in  set- 


lO  CLASSROOM    MANAGEMENT 

tling  back  into  the  easy,  complacent  attitude  of  blind  and 
empirical  practice. 

8.  Specifically,  the  question  that  classroom  manage- 
ment must  ask  of  every  device  or  method  that  is  proposed 
for  the  elimination  or  prevention  of  waste  in  the  work  of 
the  school  is  this :  Will  the  method  or  device  be  consistent 
in  its  operation  with  the  ultimate  end  of  education; 
namely,  the  social  efiiciency  of  the  individual  who  is  being 
educated?  To  consider  a  concrete  case:  The  "prize" 
system  encourages  intense  application  on  the  part  of 
pupils.  It  makes  possible  concentrated  and  sustained 
effort  with  a  minimum  of  supervision.  So  far  it  tends  to 
subserve  the  economy  of  the  educative  process.  But  what 
will  be  its  ultimate  effect  upon  the  social  qualities  of  the 
pupil?  Does  it  make  him  selfish,  self-centered,  and  self- 
seeking?  Does  it  tend  to  develop  in  him  non-social  or 
anti-social  ideals?  These  are  questions  that  must  be 
asked  and  for  which  an  answer  must  be  sought  through 
careful  reflection  and  investigation.  It  is  not  sufficient  in 
such  cases  to  *^jump  at  conclusions^^  or  to  draw  one^s  con- 
clusions from  prejudice  and  dogma.  Evidence  must  be 
sought  and  sifted,  and  generalizations  based  upon  this 
evidence  must  be  understood  as  having  validity  only  in 
proportion  to  the  number  and  authenticity  of  the  facts 
upon  which  they  are  based. 

But  this  does  not  mean  that  action  is  to  be  delayed  until 
scientific  investigation  has  revealed  absolute  truth:  it 
simply  means  that  the  reflection  which  precedes  action 
should  be  of  the  rational,  and  not  of  the  emotional,  order ; 


INTRODUCTION  II 

that  all  available  facts  should  be  considered ;  and  that  the 
question  should  be  viewed  from  every  possible  point  of 
view  and  with  reference  to  every  probable  outcome. 

9.  Plan  0}  Treatment.  The  problem  for  which  a  solu- 
tion is  sought  in  the  following  pages  is  how  most  effec- 
tively and  economically  to  subject  a  group  of  individuals 
to  the  educative  process.  Two  general  sources  of  waste 
are  involved  in  the  "  simultaneous  "  system  of  education : 
(i)  Waste  may  be  induced  by  the  mechanical  difficulties 
that  arise  in  the  mere  fact  of  numbers;  progress  may  be 
delayed  because  the  group  is  "unwieldy."  Confusion  and 
disorder,  irregular  attendance,  lack  of  system,  and  unhy- 
gienic conditions  in  the  schoolroom  are  all  specific  factors 
which  demand  consideration  from  this  point  of  view.  In- 
asmuch as  this  source  of  waste  can  be  largely  eliminated  by 
building  up  a  number  of  specific  habits  in  the  various  indi- 
viduals of  the  group,  and  by  organizing  a  system  that  will 
take  care  of  the  mechanical  details,  these  factors  may 
conveniently  be  treated  together  under  the  designation, 
"Routine  Factors  of  Classroom  Management."  (2)  A 
second  general  source  of  waste,  however,  inheres  in  the 
very  system  thus  produced.  The  "machine"  tends  to 
absorb  the  individual,  and  the  progress  of  the  class  is 
measured  by  the  progress  of  its  slowest  member.  The 
problems  of  inattention,  "scamped"  work,  "backward" 
pupils,  and  the  varying  needs  of  individuals  must  be  con- 
sidered from  this  point  of  view.  While  the  routine  fac- 
tors will  soon  come  to  take  care  of  themselves,  this  second 
class  of  factors  must  always  receive  the  explicit  attention 


12  CLASSROOM    MANAGEMENT 

of  the  teacher.  In  view  of  this  fact,  they  may  be  grouped 
together  and  conveniently  designated  as  the  "Judgment 
Factors  of  Classroom  Management." 

References.  —  J.  Landon :  School  Management,  Boston,  1884, 
pp.  150-153 ;  J.  Baldwin :  Art  of  School  Management,  New  York, 
1887,  pp.  15-17;  R.  N.  Roark:  Economy  in  Ediication,  New  York, 
1905,  pp.  7-10;  A.  Tompkins:  Philosophy  of  School  Management, 
Boston,  1898,  pp.  ix-xiv;  E.  E.  White:  School  Management,  New 
York,  1893,  pp.  9-16. 


PART  I 

THE  ROUTINE  FACTORS   OF  CLASSROOM 
MANAGEMENT 

CHAPTER  I 

Routine  and  Habit 

I.  System  and  organization  are  the  imiversal  solvents 
of  the  problem  of  waste.  This  is  as  true  of  social  life  as 
it  is  of  animal  and  vegetable  functions ;  it  is  as  true  of  the 
spiritual  and  ideal  phases  of  social  life  —  religion  and 
education  —  as  it  is  of  the  material  phases  of  social  Hfe,  — 
"business"  and  government.  Sometimes,  it  is  true,  sys- 
tem and  organization  defeat  their  own  purpose;  they 
become  ends  in  themselves,  and  thus  tend  to  obscure  the 
true  ends  for  which  they  were  established.  When  the 
true  perspective  of  means  to  ends  is  lost  to  view,  the  means 
naturally  become  magnified  in  importance,  and  the  result 
is  "red  tape"  with  all  of  its  attendant  evils.  This  degen- 
eration is  the  Une  of  least  resistance ;  the  unfortunate  fact 
is  that  the  responsibility  for  the  evil  results  is  apt  to  be 
placed  upon  system  in  general,  rather  than  upon  perverted 
system  where  it  properly  belongs. 

In  education,  the  evils  of  perverted  system  are  the  chief 
cause  of  the  violent  reactions  which  periodically  affect  the 

13 


'T4y',l      ;   /*   '   "j CLASSROOM    MANAGEMENT 

school  system.  Such  reactions  are  often  initiated  by  men 
of  wide  experience  and  high  standing  in  the  educational 
world.  These  reformers  would  cut  the  red  tape  of  school 
organization;  discard,  once  and  for  all,  the  repressive 
forces  that  confine  and  limit  the  child's  activities;  and 
leave  teacher  and  pupil  to  work  out  each  his  own  salvation 
in  the  chaos  of  confusion  and  disorder.  These  frequent 
and  extreme  reactions  are  often  beneficial  in  that  they  call 
attention  to  useless  and  wasteful  routine,  and  thus  serve 
to  stimulate  a  healthful  reform.  The  young  teacher, 
however,  should  view  them  with  distrust,  for  the  natural 
tendencies  of  the  young  teacher  are  normally  all  in  their 
favor.  Youth  is  instinctively  radical;  it  resents  the  iron 
rule  of  established  custom.  Age  is  naturally  conservative; 
the  form  has  been  before  its  eyes  so  long  and  so  constantly 
that  it  accepts  it  as  equivalent  to  the  substance.  The 
path  of  progress  lies  in  the  middle  ground.  But  to  discard 
system  and  organization  entirely  is  to  repudiate  the  basic 
law  of  all  advancement ;  evolution  is  simply  a  progressive 
development  toward  forms  that  are  more  and  more  elabo- 
rately organized,  and  in  which  system  and  coherence  take 
the  place  of  chaos  and  incoherence. 

2.  In  the  life  of  the  individual,  system  and  organization 
are  represented,  first  by  instinct,  and  secondly  by  habit. 
Instincts  are  the  organized  reactions  that  are  inherited 
from  past  generations  —  complex  systems  of  reflex  me- 
chanical movements  that  have  been  built  up  through 
natural  selection  in  the  course  of  thousands  of  generations. 
The  lives  of  most  of  the  lower  animals  are  governed  entirely 


ROUTINE    AND    HABIT  1 5 

by  instinct,  leaving  very  little  latitude  for  individual  devel- 
opment. 

Habits,  on  the  ether  hand,  are  organized  reactions  built 
up  in  the  course  of  the  individual's  hfetime.  They  are 
formed  through  the  operation  of  consciousness  in  govern- 
ing the  adjustment  of  the  muscles  to  suit  any  particular 
environment.  Animals  that  can  form  habits  are,  there- 
fore, much  more  plastic,  much  more  adaptable,  much  less 
at  the  mercy  of  circumstances,  than  are  animals  which 
depend  entirely  upon  instinct.  Thus  mind  or  conscious- 
ness is  the  characteristic  of  the  higher  forms  of  animal 
life.  It  changes,  modifies,  reconstructs,  instinctive  ad- 
justments, and  then  fixes  the  new  forms  as  habits,  thus 
permitting  their  operation  independently  of  conscious 
control.  Mind  might  be  said  to  stand  midway  between 
instinct  and  habit;  it  is  the  factor  that  changes  the  rigid 
adjustments  of  the  lower  forms  into  the  plastic  adjustments 
of  the  higher  forms. 

In  the  last  chapter,  it  was  stated  that  education  aims  to 
reconstruct  the  child's  adjustments  in  such  a  way  that  he 
will  be  fitted  for  the  social  Ufe.  That  is,  social  hfe  — 
civilized  life  —  is  an  artificial  thing.  It  is  developing 
every  hour  farther  and  farther  away  from  the  plane  of 
"natural"  or  instinctive  Hfe.  As  each  generation  is  bom 
into  the  world,  its  members  must  be  taken  and  readjusted 
—  transformed  to  meet  the  conditions  to  which  their  in- 
stinctive reactions  are  inadequate.  This  is  done  largely 
by  building  up  new  systems  of  habits. 

3.  The  law  oj  habit-building  becomes,  therefore,  one 


l6  CLASSROOM    MANAGEMENT 

of  the  basic  laws  of  education.  In  brief  form,  this  la^ 
may  be  stated  as  follows:  Focalization  of  consciousness 
upon  the  process  to  be  automatized,  plus  attentive  repetition 
of  this  process,  permitting  no  exceptions  until  automatism 
results.  The  fundamental  significance  of  this  law  can- 
not be  overestimated.  If  there  is  one  psychological  prin- 
ciple that  may  be  looked  upon  as  a  universal  solvent  for 
educational  problems,  it  is  this.  If  carried  out  to  "the 
letter,  its  operation  is  as  certain  and  relentless  as  that  of 
the  law  of  gravitation. 

Objections  have  been  urged  against  this  formulation  of  the 
law  of  habit-building  on  the  ground  that  habits  are  frequently 
formed  without  attentive  repetition.  The  mere  fact  of  repe- 
tition is  held  to  be  sufficient  for  the  formation  of  a  true  habit 
and  even  initial  focalization  is,  by  some,  held  to  be  unneces- 
sary. The  grounds  upon  which  this  position  is  taken  are,  on 
the  surface,  quite  convincing.  It  is  well  known  that  one  may 
lapse  into  bad  habits  without  effort.  For  example,  it  is  not 
a  difficult  matter  for  one  to  acquire  the  habit  of  rising  at  eight 
in  the  morning  instead  of  at  six.  The  habit  of  giving  way  to 
anger  instead  of  inhibiting  its  expressions  can  be  acquired 
easily  enough,  and  so  on  through  a  long  list  of  undesirable 
reactions.  The  discrepancy  between  these  facts  and  the 
fundamental  law  as  stated  above  is  not,  however,  difficult  to 
clear  away.  Habits  which  follow  the  lines  of  instinctive  tend- 
encies will,  of  course,  be  built  up  without  effort.  Such  "hab- 
its" are, in  truth,  nothing  but  instincts;  the  old  "pathways of 
discharge,"  which  have  been  closed  up  through  drill  and  dis- 
cipline, may  be  reopened  with  a  minimum  of  difficulty.  The 
path  of  least  resistance  is  always  downward  —  is  always  toward 
the  instinctive  and  brutal,  and  away  from  the  civilized  and 


ROUTINE    AND    HABIT  1 7 

human.  The  law  of  habit-building  holds  only  when  habits  are 
being  formed  in  opposition  to  instinctive  tendencies;  but  it 
is  hardly  necessary  to  point  out  that  the  great  civilizing  habits 
which  it  is  the  duty  of  education  to  develop  belong  to  this 
class. 

4.  Routine  or  customary  action  in  a  group  is  not  only 
analogous  to  habitual  action  in  the  individual,  but  the 
former  is  based  upon  the  latter.  That  is,  the  "like- 
response"  *  of  a  number  of  individuals  to  the  same  stimu- 
lus demands,  if  such  response  is  to  become  a  matter  of 
custom,  the  building  up  of  like  habits  in  the  individual 
members  of  the  group.  The  law  of  habit-building  lies 
therefore  at  the  basis  of  group  routine. 

In  its  application  to  classroom  management,  this  prin- 
ciple means  that  whatever  is  to  become  a  matter  of  in- 
variable custom  in  the  classroom  must  be  made  conscious 
to  the  pupils  at  the  outset  (that  is,  focalized),  then  drilled 
upon,  consciously  and  explicitly  (attentive  repetition),  and 
held  to  rigidly,  until  all  impulse,  tendency,  or  temptation 
to  act  in  any  other  way  has  been  entirely  overcome. 

Thus,  in  the  passing  of  lines,  the  teacher  will  give  minute 
directions  on  the  very  earliest  occasion  —  before  bad  or  inade- 
quate habits  have  been  formed.  During  several  days  these 
directions  will  be  brought  to  the  pupils'  attention  (refocalized) 
just  before  the  Hnes  pass.  Perhaps  several  drills  will  be  given 
at  times  other  than  those  at  which  the  lines  regularly  pass,  in 
order  that  a  more  distinct  impression  may  be  made.  Abso- 
lutely no  exceptions  will  be  tolerated  until  the   routine  has 

^  Cf .  F.  H.  Giddings :  Descriptive  and  Historical  Sociology,  New  York, 
1906,  p.  182. 


l8  CLASSROOM    MANAGEMENT 

become  rigidly  fixed  —  after  which  time,  of  course,  exceptions 
will  not,  in  the  nature  of  things,  be  apt  to  occur. 

5.  Most  of  the  difl&culties  of  school-keeping  owe  their 
existence  to  the  fact  that  this  fundamental  law  is  so  easily 
neglected  in  practice.  One  begins  a  process  with  every 
intent  to  persevere,  but  the  desire  for  change  and  variety, 
the  instinctive  disUke  for  continuous  effort,  frequently 
prevents  attentive  repetition  in  sufficient  amount  to  insure 
the  functioning  of  the  process  as  habit.  Unless  the  process 
reaches  the  stage  of  automatism,  all  of  the  initial  repe- 
titions represent  time  and  energy  practically  thrown  away. 
That  is,  if  one  starts  out  vaHantly  to  establish  a  habit, 
carrying  on  the  repetitions  for  some  time,  but  becoming 
discouraged  before  automatism  is  reached,  practically  all 
of  the  effort  that  has  been  given  to  the  preliminary  stages 
is  absolutely  wasted.  The  stages  preceding  the  final 
repetition  which  induces  automatism  are  necessary,  it  is 
true,  but,  taken  alone,  they  are  quite  without  value. 

In  school  work,  a  vast  amount  of  time  is  wasted  by  leav- 
ing processes  at  the  "halfway  house"  between  focalization 
and  automatism.  This  is  true  both  in  the  work  of  in- 
struction (the  mechanics  of  reading  and  spelling,  the 
automatization  of  the  addition  and  multiplication  tables, 
etc.)  and  in  details  of  school  management.  The  pressing 
need,  especially  in  the  elementary  school,  is  for  strong 
teachers  who  can  rigidly  "hew  to  the  line"  in  all  of  these 
initial  stages  of  habit-building.  Even  scholarship  could 
be  sacrificed,  if  necessary,  in  attaining  this  end.    The 


ROUTINE    AND    HABIT  19 

demand  is  for  firmness  and  tenacity  of  purpose  on  the 
part  of  the  teacher;  not  firmness  and  tenacity  for  their 
own  sakes  —  this  makes  the  martinet ;  but  rather  a  tenacity, 
a  steadfastness,  that  comes  from  a  clear  perception  of  ends. 
Perhaps  the  best  teacher,  from  this  point  of  view,  is  one 
whose  natural  tendencies  are  all  in  the  direction  of  leniency, 
but  who,  recognizing  the  importance  of  the  end  to  be 
gained,  uses  this  leniency  only  to  check  and  temper  the 
measures  that  might  otherwise,  through  their  severity, 
defeat  their  own  purposes. 

It  is  the  writer's  observation  that  the  rather  rare  individual 
known  as  the  "born"  teacher  belongs  to  this  class.  Innate 
sympathy  for  childhood  is  demanded  of  the  teacher  who  has  to 
deal  with  little  children,  but  this  sympathy  must  not  be  of  the 
weak-kneed  or  sentimental  variety.  Long  before  they  reach 
school  age,  children  become  keen  in  their  estimates  of  those 
who  have  them  in  charge.  The  parent  or  nurse  who  can  be 
deceived  or  imposed  upon  is  quickly  and  surely  recognized,  and 
probably  ninety  per  cent  of  these  owe  their  weakness  to  lack 
of  persistence.  Disciplinary  measures  are  undertaken  spas- 
modically; exceptions  are  permitted  in  the  operation  of  the 
necessary  rules;  and  the  result  is  that  adequate  habits  are 
never  formed.  The  situation  is  precisely  the  same  with  the 
weak  teacher.  His  sympathy  for  childhood  may  be  excep- 
tionally acute,  but  this  will  not  serve  to  build  up  effective  habit** 
if  persistence  is  lacking. 

References.  —  W.  James:  Principles  of  Psychology,  New  York, 
1900,  vol.  i,  ch.  xiii  (also  Briefer  Course,  ch.  x);  E.  A.  Kirkpatrick: 
Fundamentals  of  Child  Study,  New  York,  1906,  pp.  350-352;  E.  L. 
Thomdike:  Elements  of  Psychology,  New  York,  1905,  pp.  199-209. 


CHAPTER  n 

Initiating  Routine  :  Preventing  Waste  by  Starting 

Aright 

I.  In  classroom  management,  as  in  other  forms  of 
activity,  efficiency  of  effort  depends  in  no  small  measure 
upon  the  way  in  which  one  starts.  Psychology  teaches 
that  "primacy"  is  a  powerful  factor  in  the  recall  of  ex- 
periences; first  impressions  lend  the  dominant  tone  to 
succeeding  impressions.  The  disastrous  effects  of  a  bad 
beginning  multiply  disproportionately  the  chances  of 
failure.  In  the  career  of  the  teacher  nothing  is  more 
important  than  to  make  a  ''good  start."  It  estabhshes  a 
certain  measure  of  prestige  in  the  minds  of  parents  and 
school  officers;  it  has  important  bearings  upon  one's 
standing  with  one's  principal  and  superintendent;  but 
most  of  all  it  "counts"  with  one's  pupils. 

It  is  true  that  the  evil  influences  of  a  bad  beginning  may 
sometimes  be  overcome  by  strenuous  effort,  and  it  is  equally 
true  that  the  lessons  of  experience  gained  in  this  way  may  mean 
much  for  the  growth  of  the  teacher.  One  may  admit  all  this 
and  yet  conclude  that,  if  mistakes  can  be  avoided  by  a  careful 
adherence  to  principles  derived  from  the  experience  of  others, 
a  great  gain  may  be  made.  In  the  work  of  teaching,  novices 
often  fail  to  profit  by  others'  experience,  not  because  they  think 
themselves  above  learning  in  this  way  (although  it  must  be 


INITIATING    ROUTINE  21 

confessed  that  this  attitude  is  sometimes  met  with),  but  simply 
because  they  do  not  appreciate  the  significance  of  the  cautions 
and  precepts  proposed  for  their  guidance;  without  the  experi- 
ence, they  lack  an  "apperceptive  basis."  This  can  be  suppHed 
only  in  part  by  concrete  cases  illustrative  of  the  way  in  which 
other  teachers  have  solved  certain  problems.  Many  of  these 
problems  appear  very  simple  and  trivial  from  the  outside. 
"Why  bother  with  them  now?"  asks  the  novice;  "I  can  solve 
them  without  difficulty  when  they  make  their  appearance  in 
my  school  —  if  they  ever  do."  This  is  the  typical  attitude  of 
youth,  and  it  is  almost  always  an  attitude,  not  of  self-conceit, 
but  of  self-confidence.  It  would  be  far  from  the  purpose  of 
the  present  discussion  to  destroy  or  lessen  that  confidence.  It 
is  the  most  valuable  asset  that  any  young  teacher  can  possess. 
Without  it  failure,  or  something  akin  to  failure,  is  almost  pre- 
destined. The  purpose  here  is  rather  to  fortify  self-confi- 
dence by  pointing  out  the  quicksands  that  would  swallow  it  up; 
and  the  chief  of  these  is  a  bad  beginning. 

2.  Preparing  jor  the  First  Day  of  School.  The  "first 
day"  of  school  becomes,  therefore,  a  most  critical  point 
in  the  teacher's  career,  but  it  is  rather  comforting  to  know 
that  its  critical  significance  is  somewhat  counterbalanced 
by  the  comparative  ease  with  which  its  problems  may  be 
solved.  As  far  as  the  pupils  are  concerned,  every  condition 
favors  the  teacher;  to  them  the  situation  is  novel,  and 
the  "new"  always  demands  attention.  Thus  far  the 
problem  solves  itself. 

With  the  conditions  so  favorable  for  attention  and  good 
order,  preparation  for  the  first  day's  work  should  be  di- 
rected toward  a  speedy  settling  of  the  pupils  into  the  regu- 
lar channels  of  the  term's  work.    It  is  generally  agreed 


22  CLASSROOM    MANAGEMENT 

among  schoolmen  that,  the  sooner  the  regular  routine  is 
estabUshed,  the  better  will  be  the  results.  The  custom 
of  letting  the  pupils  simply  assemble  for  classification  and 
the  assignment  of  seats  and  then  dismissing  them  for  the 
remainder  of  the  day,  is  to  be  looked  upon  as  bad  practice 
from  the  standpoint  of  school  economy.  It  simply  means 
that  the  second  day  must  be  given  over  to  more  beginning 
work,  and  very  frequently  the  first  week  passes  with  abso- 
lutely nothing  accomplished.  If  the  first  week  goes  off 
in  this  sHpshod  manner,  the  second  is  Hkely  to  follow  upon 
its  heels  with  the  same  characteristics,  and  by  the  end  of 
the  third  week,  pernicious  and  time-wasting  habits  will 
have  been  initiated.  The  only  way  absolutely  to  insure 
a  school  against  such  waste  is  to  make  the  very  first  day 
thoroughly  rigorous  in  all  its  details.  Some  time,  it  is 
true,  must  be  devoted  to  focalizing  and  drilling  upon  mat- 
ters of  routine,  but  some  time  will  also  be  given  to  strenu- 
ous instruction  and  equally  strenuous  acquisition  along 
the  lines  of  the  regular  work. 

3.  The  teacher,  therefore,  has  many  things  to  think 
about  and  plan  for  before  he  goes  to  school  on  the  morn- 
ing of  the  opening  day.  The  more  important  of  these 
may  be  listed  under  the  following  precepts  and  direc- 
tions :  — 

Preliminary  Arrangements,  (i)  Visit  the  school  some  time 
before  the  opening  day.  Become  familiar  with  the  arrange- 
ment of  the  building  and  of  the  room  that  you  are  to  occupy. 
Note  carefully  the  entrances  and  exits.  Note  the  location  of 
the  wardrobe.     Determine  the  best  method  of  passing  lines. 


INITIATING   ROUTINE  23 

Work  out  the  routine  of  collecting  and  distributing  wraps. 
Note  location  of  toilet  rooms  and  closets.  Note  method  of 
heating  and  ventilation,  and  plan  how  ventilation  may  be  pro- 
vided for  without  causing  serious  draughts. 

(2)  Have  upon  your  desk  enough  paper  to  supply  material 
for  the  first  day's  work  for  all  pupils  in  case  some  should  come 
without  the  necessary  materials.  Also  have  enough  pencils, 
already  sharpened,  to  supply  each  member  of  the  class.  Often 
boxes  of  pencils  will  be  found  in  the  schoolroom,  even  when 
the  supplies  are  not  furnished  free  to  the  pupils.  In  case, 
however,  no  pencils  are  found,  it  will  be  economy  for  the 
teacher  to  purchase  a  supply  from  his  own  purse.  With  paper 
and  pencils,  a  day's  work  can  be  carried  through,  even  if  text- 
books are  not  available. 

(3)  Make  certain  that  the  blackboards  are  clean  and  fit  for 
use.  Plan  a  definite  method  of  having  classes  pass  to  the 
blackboard.     Be  sure  that  chalk  and  erasers  are  provided. 

(4)  Look  through  the  teacher's  desk  for  the  last  term's 
register.  In  it  you  will  doubtless  find  a  list  of  the  pupils  pro- 
moted and  a  list  of  those  remaining  in  your  room.  If  your 
predecessor  has  been  thoughtful,  you  may  also  find  a  statement 
of  the  work  done  during  the  previous  term.  This  will  show 
you  where  to  begin  with  at  least  one  of  your  classes. 

(5)  Secure  a  course  of  study.  If  the  school  has  no  regularly 
adopted  course,  use  the  state  course.  In  any  case,  the  work 
should  check  with  the  state  course,  where  the  latter  is  manda- 
tory. Procure  the  adopted  text-books,  and  plan  to  start  your 
pupils  at  the  point  ^  indicated  for  the  grade  and  class  in  the  course 
of  study,  unless  the  record  of  the  previous  teacher  indicates 
definitely  the  point  that  the  classes  have  already  reached. 
Every  teacher  should  be  careful  to  leave  in  his  desk  at  the  close 
of  each  term  a  statement  of  the  work  done  by  his  various 

*  In  such  subjects  as  arithmetic  and  grammar,  the  first  lessons  should 
generally  be  given  over  to  reviews  of  the  previous  term's  work. 


24  CLASSROOM    MANAGEMENT 

classes.     This  will  frequently  save  the  next  teacher  a  great 
deal  of  trouble  and  useless  work. 

(6)  Plan  the  first  day's  work  for  each  class,  aiming  to  cover 
in  every  subject  some  work  with  which  the  pupils  may  be 
assumed  to  be  familiar.  Plan  especially  careful  assignments 
that  will  provide  definite  work  for  study  periods  in  case  pupils 
come  (as  many  will)  unprovided  with  text-books.  If  the  text- 
books are  furnished  free,  and  if  a  supply  will  be  available  for 
the  opening  day,  the  work  may,  of  course,  be  so  arranged  as  to 
utilize  the  texts  from  the  outset.  This  will  materially  simplify 
the  first  day's  problems,  but,  unhappily,  it  is  a  condition  not 
frequently  fulfilled.  For  classes  up  to  the  fifth  grade,  reading 
lessons  may,  if  necessary,  be  placed  upon  the  blackboard. 
Picture  study  is  available  in  geography  and  in  language  work 
where  texts  are  unavailable.  Map  study  from  a  wall  map,  and 
map  drawing  from  a  blackboard  model,  are  suggestive  for  the 
work  in  geography.  In  every  case,  care  should  be  taken  to  plan 
for  real,  efifective  teaching,  and  not  merely  for  "busy  work." 
Seriousness  of  purpose  must  be  the  dominant  note  throughout. 

(7)  Construct  a  tentative  program  based  upon  the  course 
of  study.  Make  this  as  nearly  perfect  as  possible  from  the 
theoretical  standpoint  (see  principles  of  program  construction, 
Chapter  IV),  so  that  subsequent  changes  will  be  limited  to  those 
details  that  are  demanded  by  unforeseen  contingencies. 

(8)  If  the  school  is  graded,  try  to  arrange  for  preliminary 
consultations  both  with  the  principal  and  with  the  teacher  of 
the  preceding  grade.  If  the  principal  does  not  suggest  this, 
the  teacher  should.  Note  very  carefully  any  suggestions  that 
the  principal  may  make  and  follow  them  implicitly.  In  a 
rural  school,  consult  with  the  county  superintendent,  personally 
if  possible,  if  not  personally,  at  least  by  correspondence.  Ask 
definite  questions  in  all  cases  where  you  are  in  doubt  concern- 
ing the  course  of  study,  the  policy  on  disputed  methods  of 
instruction  or  management,  the  text-books  to  be  used,  etc. 


INITIATING    ROUTINE  25 

4.  The  First  Dafs  Work.  These  preliminary  matters 
well  in  hand,  the  teacher  is  ready  for  the  first  day's  work. 
The  following  suggestions  cover  some  of  the  points  to  be 
borne  in  mind ;  — 

(i)  Be  on  hand  early. 

(2)  See  that  the  classroom  is  in  good  condition :  floors  clean, 
desks  dusted,  wardrobes  ready  for  use.  Do  not  complain  to 
principal  or  janitor  unless  conditions  are  intolerable.  Remedy 
matters  yourself. 

(3)  See  that  chalk  and  erasers  are  distributed  at  the  black- 
board, or  in  readiness  for  distribution  by  monitors  to  be  ap- 
pointed. In  any  case,  be  sure  that  these  necessary  materials 
are  on  hand  and  in  condition  to  be  used,  —  chalk  boxes  open, 
erasers  cleaned,  etc. 

(4)  Place  upon  the  blackboard  whatever  work  you  have  pro- 
vided for  your  earliest  classes.  Your  program  will  doubtless 
indicate  arithmetic  as  one  of  the  earliest  forms  of  seat  work. 
Have  examples  upon  the  blackboard  in  sufficient  number  to 
provide  work  in  arithmetic  for  all  classes. 

(5)  Pupils  who  arrive  early  should  be  greeted  pleasantly 
and  directed  to  take  seats.  Many  successful  teachers  require 
pupils  arriving  before  the  "first  bell"  to  observe  the  same 
decorum  that  they  would  observe  during  the  regular  session, 
so  long  as  they  remain  in  the  schoolroom  rather  than  upon  the 
playground.  Whether  you  adopt  this  policy  or  not,  it  is  well 
on  the  first  morning  to  check  any  tendency  to  run  about  the 
room  or  to  pass  from  seat  to  seat. 

(6)  It  is  good  poHcy  always  to  enlist  the  aid  of  the  pupils 
in  helping  you  about  the  routine  preparatory  to  the  real  school 
work.  On  the  first  morning,  they  may,  at  your  direction,  dis- 
tribute the  chalk  and  erasers,  slips  of  paper  for  the  names  of 
the  pupils,  the  pencils,  etc. 


26  CLASSROOM    MANAGEMENT 

(7)  Everything  should  be  in  readiness  when  the  bell  rings 
and  the  lines  come  in.  The  teacher  should  direct  the  pupils  to 
take  seats  regularly  in  the  different  rows  in  the  order  of  their 
entering  the  room.  After  this  first  preliminary  seatmg,  changes 
may  be  immediately  made  if  desired.  If  there  are  two  classes, 
and  if  one  has  already  been  in  the  room,  —  as  will  be  the  case 
wherever  the  promotions  are  semi-annual,  —  let  the  older  pupils 
take  the  seats  occupied  the  preceding  term.  If  all  or  most  of 
the  pupils  are  new,  let  them  take  seats  as  suggested  as  speedily 
as  possible,  making  temporary  changes  where  necessary  to  ac- 
commodate pupils  to  different  sizes  of  seats  and  desks.  This 
should  occupy  but  a  very  brief  period. 

(8)  Place  into  immediate  application  your  prearranged 
plan  for  disposing  of  the  hats  and  wraps.  If  they  are  to  be 
collected,  appoint  the  first  or  the  last  pupil  in  each  row  as  a 
monitor  for  this  purpose.  Give  clear,  distinct  directions,  and 
enforce  these  directions  rigidly  from  the  outset.  If  the  wraps 
are  to  be  left  in  the  wardrobe  as  the  pupils  pass  in,  have  the 
lines  file  out  and  return  to  the  room  according  to  your  plan, 
depositing  their  wraps  as  they  pass.  The  manner  in  which  you 
handle  this,  the  very  first  bit  of  routine,  will  have  a  large  share 
in  determining  the  first  impression  that  you  leave  with  your 
pupils. 

(9)  When  this  has  been  accomplished,  the  time  is  opportune 
for  your  opening  remarks,  if  you  wish  to  make  any.  Let  these 
be  brief,  clear-cut,  and  devoid  of  threats,  cant,  or  platitudes. 
Especially  guard  against  ''soft  soapiness.'*  A  song  is  also  in 
place  if  you  can  select  one  which  is  familiar  to  all  the  pupils, 
and  lead  it  well  yourself.  Devotional  exercises  are  in  place 
unless  prohibited  by  law,  ruling,  or  public  sentiment. 

(10)  After  these  preliminaries  direct  each  pupil  to  write  his 
name  upon  the  slip  of  paper  handed  to  him.  Have  the  first 
pupil  in  each  row  collect  the  slips,  placing  his  own  at  the  bottom 
of  the  bundle,  and  the  others  in  order.    As  the  slip*  f^f  each 


INITIATING   ROUTINE  27 

row  are  brought  to  you,  place  a  rubber-band  about  them,  and 
then  arrange  the  bundles  across  your  desk  in  the  order  of  the 
rows.  You  will  then  be  able,  with  a  minimum  of  trouble, 
to  find  the  name  of  any  pupil  by  reference  to  the  slips  belong- 
ing to  his  row. 

(11)  All  this  should  occupy  but  a  brief  period  of  time  — 
certainly  not  more  than  twenty  minutes  —  and  from  this  time 
on,  in  a  two-class  or  three-class  room,  the  regular  program 
should  be  adhered  to.  Assign  work  to  the  more  advanced 
class,  if  there  are  two,  or  to  all  but  the  lowest  class,  if  there 
are  more  than  two.  The  first  recitation  should  begin  with 
this.  If  the  pupils  are  to  come  forward  to  occupy  a  recitation 
bench,  give  explicit  directions  for  the  passing  of  the  lines,  and 
explain  the  signals  that  you  propose  to  use.  It  will  probably 
be  necessary  to  give  two  or  three  drills  upon  this  before  the 
movement  to  the  bench  and  back  to  the  seats  satisfies  you. 
The  first  day's  work  may  very  well  be  devoted  in  part  to  such 
drills,  but  always  save  time  for  some  serious  work.  If  the 
class  passes  to  the  blackboard,  drill  it  several  times  in  the  pre- 
arranged movement  of  lines. 

(12)  In  an  ungraded  or  rural  school,  the  work  cannot  be 
begun  so  expeditiously  on  account  of  the  time  necessarily  taken 
up  in  finding  out  what  pupils  belong  in  the  several  classes.  In 
such  a  case,  start  this  work  of  classification  immediately  after 
the  slips  have  been  collected.  Let  the  older  pupils  group  them- 
selves tentatively  and  then  set  the  different  groups  at  some 
form  of  seat  work.  The  younger  pupils  can  then  be  examined 
more  carefully  and  classified.  This  is  a  difficult  matter  to 
handle  successfully  at  the  outset,  and  changes  will  probably 
be  found  necessary  in  several  instances.  Up  to  the  fifth  grade, 
classification  should  be  based  mainly  upon  the  pupils'  stage 
of  advancement  in  reading.  From  the  fifth  grade  on,  arith- 
metic is  the  most  convenient  subject  to  use  as  a  test. 

(13)  Stop  all  work  a  few  minutes  before  recess  time  to  driU 


28  CLASSROOM    MANAGEMENT 

pupils  Upon  the  passing  of  lines.  In  a  large  graded  school 
it  will  be  necessary  to  know  how  all  the  lines  pass  to  the  play- 
ground in  order  that  you  may  assemble  your  pupils  in  the  proper 
place.  This  should  be  one  of  the  matters  learned  beforehand 
by  consultation  with  the  principal  or  with  other  teachers. 

(14)  Appoint  monitors  to  distribute  pens,  tablets,  copy-books, 
etc.,  just  prior  to  the  first  periods  when  these  materials  are  used. 
Distribute  the  monitorial  functions  among  as  many  pupils  as 
possible,  holding  each  strictly  responsible  from  the  first  for 
the  efficiency  of  his  service.  Devote  some  time  during  the 
first  day  to  drilling  the  monitors  in  these  duties.  Let  them 
pass  and  collect  the  materials  again  and  again,  until  they  can 
do  the  work  with  celerity,  dispatch,  and  good  order.  If  you 
propose  to  use  this  monitorial  service  as  a  reward  of  good 
standing  (see  discussion.  Chapter  III),  let  the  pupils  know 
this  at  the  start,  Stating  that  changes  will  be  made  at  the  begin- 
ning of  the  second  week  or  month,  as  the  case  may  be. 

5.  The  teacher  will  find  plenty  to  do  during  whatever 
time  may  be  at  his  disposal  the  first  recess  and  noon  inter- 
mission. In  the  first  place,  work  for  the  classes  that 
come  after  the  intermission  must  be  placed  upon  the 
boards.  Probably  some  time  can  be  devoted  to  examining 
the  work  that  the  pupils  have  done  in  their  early  exercises. 
In  this  way  some  notion  may  be  gained  of  the  previous 
work  and  present  attainments  of  the  pupils,  and  a  gauge 
secured  for  measuring  their  application.  Doubtless  it  will 
be  found  that  some  of  the  pupils  are  not  "up  to  grade," 
while  a  few  may  have  been  placed  in  classes  below  their 
standard  of  attainments.  Notes  should  be  taken  of  all 
such  cases,  and  the  pupils  that  are  very  obviously  mis- 
placed should  be  readjusted  without  delay  —  after  con- 


INITIATING   ROUTINE  29 

sultation,  of  course,  with  the  principal.  Care  should  also 
be  taken  to  furnish  whatever  reports  the  principal  or  super- 
intendent may  desire  at  the  close  of  the  first  session. 

Just  prior  to  the  close  of  the  first  session,  time  should  be 
taken  to  instruct  the  pupils  in  packing  away  books,  ar- 
ranging desks  in  a  uniform  and  orderly  manner,  etc.  If 
pencils,  tablets,  etc.,  are  to  be  collected,  the  monitors 
should  be  drilled  in  this  duty. 

6.  In  an  ungraded  school  the  conditions  are,  of  course, 
much  more  involved  and  compUcated  than  in  a  graded 
school.  The  amount  of  preliminary  work  is  much  greater, 
and  the  chances  for  a  smooth  running  of  the  first  session 
are  much  smaller.  The  general  procedure,  however,  is 
the  same  in  both  cases:  minute  prearrangements  that 
shall  look  out  for  all  mechanical  details;  extremely  care- 
ful preparation  of  first  lessons ;  strenuous  drills  in  class 
movements,  lines,  passing  to  blackboards,  monitorial 
functions,  etc. 

The  first  day  should  leave  with  the  pupils  a  distinct  im- 
pression that  work  has  begun  in  earnest,  that  no  time  has 
been  "frittered  away,"  and  that  something  definite  has 
been  accomplished. 

References.  —  For  valuable  directions  regarding  the  classification 
of  pupils,  especially  in  ungraded  schools,  see  J.  Baldwin:  Art  of 
School  Management,  pt.  ii,  ch.  iii;  for  exceptionally  good  advice  on 
the  work  of  the  first  day,  see  a  copyrighted  article  by  F.  A.  Wagner: 
"A  Special  Method  of  Class  Management,"  in  Western  Journal  of 
Education  (San  Francisco),  1905,  vol.  x,  pp.  15  flF.;  also,  Roark: 
Economy  in  Edttcation,  pp.  37-40;  L.  Seeley:  A  New  School  Man- 
agement,  New  York,  1903,  chs.  iii,  iv. 


CHAPTER  III 
Mechanizing  Routine 

1.  In  discussing  the  problems  of  the  opening  day  of 
school  it  was  impUed  that  the  routine  activities  of  the  class- 
room are  to  be  reduced  as  rapidly  as  possible  to  the  plane 
of  unvarying  habit,  and  the  fundamental  thesis  of  that 
discussion  was  the  first  article  in  the  law  of  habit-build- 
ing: initial  focaUzation  of  attention  upon  the  activity  to 
be  mechanized.  It  is  now  necessary  to  justify  the  position 
imphed,  and,  in  doing  this,  it  will  be  necessary  to  treat 
these  details  of  routine  on  a  broader  plane  than  that  in- 
volved  in  their  relation  to  the  first  day's  work. 

2.  There  are  at  present  two  opposing  theories  of  school 
management.  The  advocates  of  one  theory  protest 
against  anything  that  resembles  a  military  organization 
of  the  schools.  The  advocates  of  the  other  theory  favor 
some  measure  of  reversion  to  the  old-time  school  fashion  of 
rigid  discipline  and  machinelike  organization.  The  for- 
mer class  must  not,  however,  be  looked  upon  as  positively 
approving  chaos  and  disorder.  They  disapprove  of  good 
order  only  when  it  is  forced  from  without ;  in  other  words, 
all  government  must  be  5e//-govemment.  Nor  do  the 
members  of  the  latter  class  indorse  the  sterner  measures 
which  the  old-time  schoolmaster  employed  to  secure  the 

30 


MECHANIZING   ROUTINE  31 

desired  end.  They  do  believe,  however,  that  some  form 
of  restraint  and  control  must  be  imposed  from  without. 
The  chief  difference  between  the  two  theories  is  a  differ- 
ence of  opinion  as  to  the  capacity  of  the  child  for  self- 
government. 

There  can  be  no  doubt  that  most  of  the  advanced  and 
progressive  educators  of  to-day  are  advocates  of  the 
former  doctrine.  Neither  can  it  be  doubted  that  many 
who  hold  to  the  "machine"  doctrine  are  teachers  of  small 
mental  caliber  and  indifferent  training  who  would  be  com- 
pletely discomfited  were  the  acme  of  good  teaching  con- 
strued as  anything  more  than  the  ability  effectively  to 
administer  discipline.  When  originaHty  and  spontaneity 
of  instruction  and  abihty  to  secure  and  hold  interest  are 
demanded,  many  of  these  teachers  are  not  equal  to  the 
task,  and  they  consequently  attempt  to  cover  up  their 
inefficiency  by  deriding  the  worth  and  utiUty  of  a  task  to 
which  they  are  themselves  incompetent.  It  is  an  old 
trick  —  as  old  as  human  nature ;  but  this  does  not  prevent 
it  from  making  the  situation  rather  difficult  to  one  who 
recognizes  some  measure  of  justice  in  their  attitude  to- 
ward details,  while  at  the  same  time  recognizing  the 
unworthy  motives  that  animate  their  opposition. 

3.  One  might  infer  from  this  discussion  that  the  "ma- 
chine" doctrine  is  not  criticised  in  and  for  itself,  but 
rather  because  it  may  be  so  easily  applied  by  mediocre 
talent.  This,  however,  is  not  altogether  true.  The  ad- 
herents of  the  "anti-machine"  doctrine  offer  some  very 
cogent   arguments  against  mechanical    organization   by 


32  CLASSROOM    MANAGEMENT 

whomsoever  it  may  be  applied.    These  arguments  may 
be  briefly  summarized  in  the  following  propositions :  — 

(i)  Mechanical  organization  disregards  the  individuality  of 
the  child.  All  must  act  in  concert;  each  must  do  what  the 
others  do. 

(2)  Mechanical  organization  is  imposed  from  without.  It 
is  an  expression  of  arbitrary  and  despotic  rule.  Pupils  are 
required  to  do  things  for  which  they  can  see  no  reason.  This 
is  contrary  to  the  fundamental  principle  of  democratic  govern- 
ment. 

(3)  Mechanical  organization  imposes  a  dead  and  dull  back- 
ground of  routine  which  effectively  discourages  spontaneous 
effort.  As  a  result,  the  brighter  pupils  react  against  it,  while 
the  duller  pupils  find  the  atmosphere  perhaps  somewhat  con- 
genial. This  places  a*premium  upon  those  who  are  naturally 
the  less  capable,  while  those  naturally  the  more  capable  are 
branded  as  mischievous  and  ''bad." 

(4)  Mechanical  organization  in  matters  properly  routine 
tends  to  "spread"  to  matters  of  a  different  nature.  Classes 
that  are  led  to  move  in  a  lock-step  physically  tend  soon  to 
move  in  a  lock-step  mentally.  Memoriter  work  of  the  most 
formal  type  tends  to  displace  rational  work. 

(5)  Habit  is  always  the  antithesis  of  judgment;*  routine 
antagonizes  reason.  If  machine  reactions  are  overemphasized, 
intellectual  reactions  will  be  underemphasized.  The  tendency 
will  always  be  to  produce  the  machine,  the  automatism ;  and  a 
machine  reacts  as  fatally  when  the  reaction  is  inadequate  as 
it  does  when  the  reaction  is  adequate.  The  machine,  in  other 
words,  lacks  initiative,  and  initiative  —  ability  to  solve  novel 
situations  —  is  the  power  that  is  needed  to  meet  the  conditions 
of  our  complex  modem  life. 

»  Cf.  The  Educative  Process,  ch.  viL 


MECHANIZING   ROUTINE  33 

(6)  If  success  in  mere  mechanical  organization  is  held  up  as 
the  acme  of  effective  teaching  (as  is  often  the  case),  teachers 
who  are  really  efficient  from  the  standpoint  of  instruction  and 
inspiration  will  be  discouraged  from  entering  or  continuing 
in  the  work  of  the  school.  This  work  will  therefore  be  left  to 
the  drill-masters  and  gradgrinds  —  men  and  women  of  small 
caliber  minds. 

4.  No  one  can  justly  deny  the  cogency  and  force  of  these 
arguments;  in  fact,  they  carry  certain  conviction  if  one 
for  a  moment  loses  the  perspective  that  comes  only  from 
an  adequate  conception  of  fundamental  principles.  In 
what  manner,  then,  are  these  arguments  inconsistent  with 
fundamental  principles? 

In  the  first  place,  it  should  be  remembered  that  the 
contention  is  not  between  organization  and  no  organiza- 
tion, but  rather  concerns  the  question.  What  constitutes 
an  irreducible  minimum  of  organized  routine  ?  the  "  anti- 
machine  '*  camp  insisting  that  it  is  better  to  run  the  risk  of 
some  waste  through  too  little  organization  than  to  incur 
the  dangers  noted  in  the  above  arguments  through  too 
much  organization.  It  therefore  becomes  necessary  to 
examine  these  arguments  to  determine  (i)  whether  they 
are  valid,  and  (2)  whether,  having  proved  their  validity, 
one  can  find  some  means  of  counteracting  the  dangers 
that  they  involve.  One  should  at  least  take  these  steps 
before  repudiating  organization  entirely. 

(i)  The  argument  that  mechanical  organization  disregards 
the  individuality  of  the  pupil  by  imposing  the  same  activities 
'upon  all,  has  little  force  unless  it  can  be  proved  that  no  ade- 


34  CLASSROOM    MANAGEMENT 

quate  channels  remain  through  which  individuality  can  find 
expression.  This  is  not  apt  to  be  the  case,  for  the  organization 
of  routine  provides  only  for  the  invariable  school  activities. 
Individuality  and  originality  and  initiative  may  still  find  ade- 
quate expression,  and  this  expression  (theoretically,  at  least) 
will  be  the  more  untrammeled  because  routme  has  been  re- 
duced to  habit. 

(2)  That  mechanical  organization  is  imposed  from  without, 
and  that  the  pupil  sees  no  reason  for  its  existence,  would  be  an 
effective  argument  only  if  it  could  be  proved  that  that  organiza- 
tion for  which  the  pupil  sees  a  reason  would  be  more  effective. 
Probably  this  would  be  true  with  children  in  the  period  of  ado- 
lescence or  a  little  before  adolescence,  and  when  this  age  has 
been  reached,  it  is  doubtless  well  to  explain  the  reasons  for 
routine  drills.  Prior  to  this  period,  however,  much  time  spent 
in  explaining  the  "why"  is  time  thrown  away.  Young  chil- 
dren may  give  every  indication  of  perceiving  the  reason  for  a 
certain  requirement  and  yet  find  that  requirement  just  as 
irksome  as  it  would  be  were  the  rule  stated  dogmatically  and 
enforced  arbitrarily. 

(3)  That  mechanical  organization  favors  the  weaker  pupil 
at  the  expense  of  the  brighter,  and,  through  its  unnatural 
insistence  upon  small  and  seemingly  trivial  matters,  disgusts 
the  latter  and  incites  him  to  revolt,  is  an  argument  of  some- 
what greater  weight.  Still  it  must  be  proved  that  the  average 
"rebel"  in  school  is  found  among  the  brighter  pupils,  and  this 
would  be  extremely  hard  to  demonstrate;  even  if  it  were 
demonstrated,  it  would  have  further  to  be  proved  that  com- 
pliance with  disciplinary  measures  is  not  a  good  thing,  even 
for  a  bright  pupil.  Society  can  bear  up  under  the  strain  of  a 
few  geniuses  who  have  never  learned  the  lessons  of  self-control, 
but  these  few  practically  exhaust  its  patience. 

(4)  The  statement  that  habit  and  judgment  are  antithetical 
processes  is  best  answered  by  the  equally  true  statement  that 


MECHANIZING   ROUTINE  35 

both  are  necessary.  Here  again  the  perspective,  the  balance, 
must  be  kept  steadily  in  mind.  Habit  is  good  only  in  so  far  as 
it  makes  judgment  more  effective  by  looking  after  the  details 
that  are  unvarying.  Judgment  is  effective  only  when  it  can 
confine  itself  to  the  new  and  variable,  confident  that  habit  will 
care  for  the  customary  and  invariable.  Habit  may  interfere 
with  initiative,  but  initiative  without  habit  would  be  thoroughly 
unreliable  and  futile.  The  discrepancy  is  fundamental,  and 
can  be  solved  only  by  compromise. 

(5)  That  mechanical  organization  keeps  from  the  teacher's 
calling  the  men  and  women  who  can  inspire  as  well  as  administer 
discipline  and  instruction,  is  doubtless  true.  The  inspirational 
type  of  teacher  is  usually  the  type  to  whom  routine  and  details 
are  infinitely  irksome  and  laborious.  Yet  these  are  the  men 
and  women  that  education  stands  in  greatest  need  of  enlisting 
in  its  work.  So  great  is  this  need,  in  fact,  that  one  might  almost 
say,  "Secure  them  at  any  cost;  routine,  discipline,  organiza- 
tion, even  instruction,  may  be  quoted  at  a  discount  when  inspira- 
tion is  in  the  market."  And  yet  it  would  seem  not  impossible 
to  find  inspirational  power  combined  with  a  certain  delight  in 
routine;  perhaps  not  natively,  instinctively,  but  at  any  rate 
combined  through  some  discipline  of  experience.  One  who 
studies  educational  theory  aright  can  see  in  the  mechanical 
routine  of  the  classroom  the  educative  forces  that  aire  slowly 
transforming  the  child  from  a  little  savage  into  a  creature  of 
law  and  order,  fit  for  the  Hfe  of  civilized  society.  One  who 
gains  this  conception  no  longer  looks  upon  mechanical  routine 
as  something  that  is  merely  humdrum  and  static.  To  see  a 
habit  take  root  and  grow  is  fully  as  fascinating  an  experience 
to  the  initiated  as  to  see  an  idea  or  an  ideal  dawn  upon  the  mind 
of  the  child.  It  is  the  latter  privilege  that  is  supposed  to  be 
the  reward  of  the  inspirational  teacher  —  the  man  or  woman 
who  possesses  the  true  "genius"  for  teaching.  But  the  former 
privilege  may  come  to  be  a  reward  just  as  highly  valued. 


36  CLASSROOM    MANAGEMENT 

5.  To  summarize:  While  mechanical  organization  of 
school  routine  involves  some  grave  dangers,  there  is  no 
one  of  these  dangers  that  cannot  be  effectively  counteracted 
by  simple  precautions.  As  long  as  these  precautions  are 
taken,  the  more  thoroughly  and  elaborately  routine  is 
reduced  to  the  plane  of  automatism,  the  better  for  the 
economical  operation  of  the  school.  Under  this  condition 
the  most  efl5cient  school  is  one  that  "goes  like  a  machine." 
The  moment,  however,  that  this  machine  spirit  enters  the 
work  of  instruction,  the  moment  that  it  becomes  the  mas- 
ter instead  of  the  servant,  the  moment  that  it  threatens  the 
inspirational  and  ideal  aspects  of  the  educative  process, 
it  becomes  a  menace  to  the  ultimate  efficiency  of  the  school 
and  should  be  instantly  reformed. 

6.  What  details  of  school  routine  are  to  be  subjected  to 
this  process  of  mechanical  organization?  The  answer  to  this 
question  vdll  vary  somewhat  with  the  grades  represented 
in  the  school.  In  the  lower  grades  very  little  dependence 
can  be  placed  upon  individual  responsibiUty ;  almost  every 
detail  must  be  looked  after  exphcitly  by  the  teacher,  and 
the  more  quickly  all  details  are  reduced  to  system  and  order, 
the  more  effective  will  be  the  routine  work  of  the  school. 
In  the  upper  grades,  on  the  other  hand,  a  greater  degree 
of  individual  responsibiUty  can  be  assumed,  although  there 
is  little  doubt  that  the  present  tendency,  especially  in  the 
high  school,  is  toward  too  little  mechanical  organization. 

In  general,  for  the  elementary  school,  the  following  mat- 
ters will  need  specific  attention  and  persistent  drill  at  the 
outset. 


MECHANIZING   ROUTINE  37 

The  Passing  of  Lines.  For  the  expert  observer,  there 
is  probably  no  detail  of  school  management  that  indi- 
cates more  clearly  the  efficiency  or  inefficiency  of  the 
teacher  than  the  manner  in  which  the  Hnes  pass  to  and 
from  the  room.  Are  the  pupils  quiet  and  orderly  in  hne  ? 
Do  they  move  energetically  (even  though  slowly)  or  do 
they  "shuffle"  along  and  crowd  and  stumble?  Whether 
pupils  should  be  required  to  "keep  step"  is  a  mooted 
question,  but  no  very  cogent  arguments  are  advanced 
against  this  procedure,  and  it  adds  much  to  the  ease  and 
facility  with  which  the  lines  pass.  In  a  "first-class" 
school  the  lines  should  pass  quietly  and  in  an  orderly 
manner  when  they  are  not  supervised ;  but  orderly  Hnes 
that  are  supervised  are  greatly  to  be  preferred  over  dis- 
orderly lines  that  are  unsupervised. 

Especial  care  should  be  observed  in  moving  lines  up 
and  down  stairs.  The  best  plan  is  rigidly  to  prohibit  any 
running  or  "skipping  steps"  on  the  stairs  at  any  time.  If 
this  habit  is  eUminated,  the  lines  will  pass  quietly  even  in 
case  of  fire  or  other  accident  that  might  give  rise  to  a  panic. 
The  serious  responsibility  that  rests  with  the  teacher  in 
this  connection  cannot  be  too  strongly  reaHzed.  The 
only  insurance  against  panic  in  case  of  fire  is  perfect  dis- 
cipline. If  bad  habits  are  allowed  under  normal  con- 
ditions, no  strength  of  will  can  bring  order  out  of  chaos 
on  an  unusual  occasion. 

Fire  Drills.  The  fire  drill  is  generally  recognized  as  abso- 
lutely essential  in  a  large  school.  Drills  should  be  held  at 
least  once  a  month,  and  oftener  at  the  opening  of  the  term. 


38  CLASSROOM    MANAGEMENT 

They  should  be  given  at  the  time  when  they  are  least  expected 
both  by  pupils  and  by  teachers.  Ordinarily,  the  best  method 
of  emptying  the  building  is  to  follow  the  normal  formation  of 
lines.  Thus  every  dismissal  will  add  stability  to  the  fire  disci- 
pline. Unless  the  cloakrooms  are  difficult  of  access,  pupils 
should  take  their  wraps  as  they  pass  out.  This  preserves  the 
regular  routine  and,  when  carefully  drilled  upon,  occupies  a 
minimum  of  time.  Of  course,  where  the  danger  of  a  minute's 
delay  would  imperil  life,  the  fire  drill  should  not  include  this 
operation.  The  construction  of  the  building,  the  arrangement 
of  exits,  and  the  capacity  of  the  stairways  must  all  be  con- 
sidered in  this  matter.  It  is  the  writer's  opinion  that  the 
pupils  should  not  be  permitted  to  run  downstairs  in  the  fire 
drill.  The  danger  of  falling  is  not  to  be  slightly  regarded,  and 
an  accident  of  this  sort  is  far  more  apt  to  cause  panic  and  con- 
fusion than  anything  else.  However,  in  buildings  that  are 
recognized  "fire  traps,"  even  this  may  be  necessary.  If  it  is, 
drills  should  be  more  numerous,  beginning  with  walking,  and 
then  gradually  increasing  the  pace  until  a  maximum  has  been 
reached. 

In  passing  from  the  exits  to  the  gates,  it  is  good  practice 
to  insist  upon  unbroken  lines.  This  avoids  confusion  at 
the  gates,  and  adds  much  to  the  appearance  of  the  dismissal 
when  viewed  by  passers-by.  The  line  formation  should 
also  be  preserved  until  the  pupils  reach  their  seats  on 
entering  the  building. 

7.  Signals.  The  verbal  signal,  "Attention!"  should 
be  understood  by  pupils  from  the  earliest  grade  to  mean  a 
definite  attitude  of  mind  and  body.  Psychology  teaches 
that  the  attentive  attitude  of  mind  is  closely  related  to  an 
attentive  attitude  of  the  body.    Should  the  hands  be  folded 


MECHANIZING  ROUTINE  39 

upon  the  desk,  or  the  arms  folded  at  this  command? 
There  is  certainly  no  valid  objection  to  either  of  these 
procedures,  and  either  will  effect  a  very  desirable  end  — 
that,  namely,  of  keeping  the  fingers  from  picking  up  pens 
or  pencils  that  may  be  lying  upon  the  desk,  or  from  play- 
ing with  inkwell-covers :  activities  which  may  be  initiated 
quite  unconsciously  and  yet  which  may  easily  result  in 
some  distracting  noise.  In  general,  the  command, 
"Attention!"  should  be  the  stimulus  for  the  habitual 
adjustment  of  the  body  in  a  certain  definite  posture :  head 
erect,  eyes  turned  toward  the  teacher,  hands  or  arms 
folded  (preferably  the  former),  feet  flat  on  the  floor,  in- 
stant cessation  of  all  other  school  work  or  activity. 

Other  signals  may  be  either  verbal  or  visual.  "Turn," 
"stand,"  "pass"  — or  counts,  "one,"  "two,"  "three," 
or  simple  gestures  with  the  hand  or  head  —  may  be  used 
to  indicate  that  the  pupils  are  to  rise  and  pass.  In  any 
case,  with  the  seats  and  desks  constructed  as  they  are  in 
most  American  schools,  three  signals  are  necessary  for 
this  movement,  and  each  signal  should  represent  a  definite 
adjustment  that  should  be  carefully  explained  and  formally 
drilled  upon  imtil  it  is  a  matter  of  habit.  Pupils  should 
arise  always  upon  the  same  side  of  the  seat ;  the  feet  should 
be  moved  to  a  definite  position  upon  the  first  signal ;  and 
the  body  should  rise  with  equal  definiteness  and  precision 
at  the  second  signal.  Ten  minutes  spent  in  carefully 
explaining  and  exemplifying  each  of  these  movements 
will  be  time  saved. 

8.  Passing   to    the  Blackboard,    It  is  strict  economy 


40  CLASSROOM    MANAGEMENT 

to  have  each  pupil  assigned  to  a  definite  place  at  the 
blackboard  and  to  insist  that,  whenever  blackboard  work 
is  required,  he  pass  to  this  place.  If  this  is  done,  uni- 
form movements  can  be  made  to  and  from  the  board. 
Generally  it  is  necessary  to  have  one  row  pass  at  a  time, 
and  in  order  to  do  this  with  celerity  and  dispatch,  initial 
drills  are  necessary. 

9.  Passing  to  the  Recitation  Bench.  If  the  classes 
that  recite  move  forward  to  the  front  of  the  room,  similar 
habits  must  be  estabhshed  to  insure  economy  in  making 
the  change.  Because  of  the  frequency  with  which  this 
movement  is  necessary  in  ungraded  schools,  it  is  probably 
well,  in  such  schools,  to  have  all  signals,  save  that  for 
attention,  visual,  rather  than  verbal. 

10.  Distributing  and  Collecting  Wraps.  Where  the 
location  of  cloakrooms  prevents  the  passing  of  lines  through 
them  so  that  each  pupil  may  take  down  his  own  wraps,  it 
is  necessary  to  inaugurate  a  system  of  monitors  to  bring 
the  wraps  into  the  schoolroom,  distribute  them,  and,  when 
the  session  is  resumed,  collect  them  and  hang  them  in  the 
cloakroom.  At  best  this  system  will  take  up  valuable 
time  in  its  operation,  and  therefore  pains  should  be  exer- 
cised to  make  the  movement  as  effective  and  economical 
as  possible.  The  first  or  the  last  pupil  in  each  row  is  the 
logical  monitor.  These  should  be  carefully  drilled  in  their 
duties,  being  directed  to  move  quickly  but  carefully  and 
to  hang  the  wraps  of  each  pupil  in  the  same  place  on  each 
occasion.  After  some  prehminary  drills,  a  minimal  time 
should  be  set  for  the  work,  and  the  monitors  held  respon- 


MECHANIZING  ROUTINE  4I 

sible  for  doing  it  within  the  time  limit.  This  will  tend 
effectually  to  check  any  tendency  on  the  part  of  monitors 
to  loiter  unduly  in  the  cloakrooms. 

II.  Distributing  and  Collecting  Books  and  Materials. 
In  the  lower  grades,  the  writing  materials  —  pens,  pencils, 
and  tablets  —  cannot  well  be  kept  in  the  pupils'  desks 
without  much  inconvenience.  Pens  and  pencils  are 
easily  lost  or  broken,  and  tablets  and  writing  books 
become  soiled.  In  some  schools  a  lesson  requiring  the 
use  of  these  materials  is  always  preceded  by  several 
minutes'  waste  of  time  in  providing  certain  delinquents 
with  the  necessities.  It  becomes  requisite,  therefore,  to 
keep  these  materials  in  a  closet  or  drawer  provided  for 
the  purpose  and  to  distribute  them  either  at  the  beginning 
of  the  session  or  whenever  they  are  needed.  For  sanitary 
reasons,  each  pupil  should  have  individual  materials, 
especially  pens  and  pencils,  and  this  necessity  still  further 
complicates  matters.  A  good  plan  is  to  have  for  each  row 
a  holder  made  of  a  pasteboard  box  with  holes  punched 
in  the  cover  into  which  pencils  and  pens  can  be  inserted. 
These  boxes  can  be  quickly  passed,  each  pupil  taking  his 
pen  or  pencil  from  the  holder  or  returning  it.  By  this 
means,  too,  the  teacher  or  a  monitor  can  see  that  the 
pencils  are  properly  sharpened  before  the  session  begins, 
and  that  the  pen  points  are  in  good  condition.  Tablets  can 
be  distributed  in  the  same  way.  Up  to  the  fifth  grade  it  is 
probably  economy  to  follow  this  method,  although  it  takes 
some  time.  This  is  compensated,  under  an  effective  system, 
however,  by  the  time  saved  at  the  points  indicated  above. 


42  CLASSROOM    MANAGEMENT 

Where  free  text-books  are  furnished,  it  is  often  prescribed 
that  the  books  shall  be  collected  each  night,  locked  in 
cases,  and  distributed  in  the  morning.  This  seems  to 
be  a  laborious  procedure  for  rather  insignificant  results, 
but  it  has  many  virtues.  In  the  first  place,  it  prevents 
the  loss  of  books.  The  teacher  can  tell  at  a  glance  whether 
a  book  is  missing  from  the  equipment  of  each  pupil.  In 
the  second  place,  it  insures  the  cleaning  out  of  the  desks 
every  day,  and  so  prevents  the  accumulation  of  debris  that 
is  otherwise  inevitable.  In  the  third  place,  it  necessitates 
the  packing  of  books  in  a  uniform  order,  and  thus  makes 
possible  the  taking  of  any  book  without  overturning  the 
contents  of  the  desk  in  order  to  find  the  book  wanted. 
The  system  requires  eflScient  monitorial  service,  but,  once 
well  established,  its  operation  need  occupy  but  a  brief 
period  at  the  beginning  and  at  the  close  of  each  daily 
session.  Formal  drills  are  again  necessary  at  the  outset 
to  insure  order,  uniformity,  and  celerity  in  the  required 
movements. 

12.  Orderly  Arrangement  of  Books  and  Materials  in 
Desks,  If  books  and  materials  are  not  distributed  and 
collected  daily,  the  teacher  should  at  least  give  explicit 
directions  relative  to  the  packing  of  these  articles  in  the 
desks.  A  definite  order  should  be  prescribed  and  care- 
fully demonstrated.  The  pupils  should  be  given  drills 
in  taking  books,  tablets,  pencils,  etc.,  from  the  interior 
of  the  desk  at  the  command  of  the  teacher,  and  without 
bending  down  to  see  where  the  required  article  is  located, 
or  tossing  the  contents  of  the  desk  about  in  order  to  get  at 


MECHANIZING   ROUTINE  43 

it.  At  the  beginning  of  each  study  period,  the  necessary 
materials  should  be  secured,  without  noise  or  confusion,  at 
a  simple  signal  from  the  teacher.  At  the  beginning  of  the 
recitation  they  should  be  replaced  as  quickly  and  quietly. 
13.  Insuring  Tidiness  of  the  Classroom.  There  are 
many  conditions  in  a  classroom  that  make  for  untidiness. 
Papers  are  easily  dropped  upon  the  floor,  pencil  sharpen- 
ings  are  scattered  about,  ink  is  spilled,  bits  of  crayon  fall 
from  the  chalk  trays  and  are  tramped  into  the  floor, 
muddy  shoes  leave  visible  and  tangible  traces  in  wet 
weather.  All  of  these  conditions  must  be  counteracted 
by  specific  routine.  It  is  safe  to  lay  down  a  rule  that  no 
work  done  on  paper  should  escape  the  supervision  of  the 
teacher ;  an  obvious  corollary  of  this  rule  is  that  an  over- 
plus of  written  work  should  be  avoided.  If  this  policy 
is  carried  out  rigidly,  the  tearing  up  of  papers  or  the 
leaving  them  upon  the  desks  where  they  will  readily  drop 
to  the  floor,  will  be  easily  prevented.  Papers  should  be 
collected  by  monitors  or  passed  to  the  front  of  each  row 
after  every  period  when  written  work  is  required.  It  is 
not  enough  that  such  papers  be  inspected  by  the  teacher; 
the  pupils  should  have  visible  evidence  of  this.  Conse- 
quently the  papers  will,  as  a  rule,  be  returned  with  the 
corrections,  and  the  corrections  will  be  studied  by  the 
pupils.  This  done,  the  papers  should  again  be  collected 
and  either  filed  for  future  reference  or  destroyed.  The 
former  plan  will  enable  the  teacher  or  principal  to  make 
comparisons  of  the  work  done  by  pupils  at  successive 
periods  during  the  term,  wliile  knowledge  that  the  papers 


44  CLASSROOM    MANAGEMENT 

are  to  be  preserved  and  filed  for  this  purpose  will  probably 
have  a  salutary  effect  upon  the  pupils'  work.  In  any  case, 
it  is  safe  to  say  that  a  continually  overflowing  waste-paper 
baisket  is  generally  an  indication  of  ineffective  teaching, 
although  if  waste  paper  is  to  be  found  anywhere  in  a 
schoolroom,  it  should  certainly  be  in  a  basket. 

Pencil  sharpenings  will  not  be  a  source  of  untidiness  if 
the  pencils  are  collected  and  a  monitor  appointed  to  look 
after  their  sharpening  either  after  school  or  before  the 
opening  of  the  session.  This  plan  is  commonly  followed 
in  the  lower  grades,  but  it  could  be  made  general  through- 
out the  elementary  school  with  beneficial  results.  Pencil 
sharpeners  which  do  the  work  effectively  can  be  purchased 
for  a  small  outlay  and  should  form  a  part  of  the  material 
equipment  of  every  school. 

For  the  spilling  of  ink  by  pupils  who  are  at  work  at  their 
desks,  there  is  probably  no  remedy  except  verbal  caution- 
ing and  a  strenuous  treatment  of  such  lapses  as  are  plainly 
due  to  carelessness,  but  the  ink-spilling  that  is  caused  by 
the  hurry  of  the  teacher  or  pupil  to  get  the  inkwells  sup- 
plied just  before  a  writing  exercise  can  be  eliminated  by 
routine.  There  should  be  a  daily  inspection  of  all  ink- 
wells to  insure  that  each  is  well  suppUed  before  the  begin- 
ning of  the  day's  work.  This  is  another  matter  of  routine 
that  can  be  looked  after  by  an  efficient  monitor. 

Chalk  trays  should  be  cleared  of  all  crayon  at  regular 
intervals  —  preferably  at  the  close  of  each  day's  work. 
This  will  eliminate  the  small  pieces  that  otherwise  collect 
in  the  trays  and  are  easily  scattered  upon  the  floor.    The 


MECHANIZING   ROUTINE  45 

teacher  should  inspect  the  chalk  trays  at  the  beginning  of 
each  session  and  make  sure  that  there  is  sufficient  crayon 
for  the  work  of  the  day.  Holding  a  class  of  twenty  pupils 
for  one  minute  while  a  crayon  box  is  passed  to  supply  one 
pupil  is  to  throw  away  just  twenty  minutes  of  valuable 
time.  It  is  through  such  drains  as  these  that  so  much  of 
the  brief  time  spent  by  the  child  in  school  is  time  wasted. 

Muddy  shoes  will  probably  form  the  least  remediable 
source  of  untidiness.  Yet  the  efficient  teacher  can,  by 
strenuous  effort,  develop  in  his  pupils  habits  that  will,  in 
a  measure,  counteract  this  evil.  If  pupils  imderstand  that 
their  shoes  are  to  be  cleaned  before  lines  form,  and  if  rather 
unpleasant  consequences  uniformly  follow  upon  a  failure 
to  fulfill  this  requirement,  it  will  not  take  long  to  build  up 
an  effective  routine  in  this  matter.  In  some  schools,  boys 
are  expected  to  blacken  their  shoes  each  morning  before 
coming  to  school.  This  is  an  excellent  habit  to  develop, 
and  it  is  not  difficult  to  make  this  requirement  and  keep 
to  it,  provided  that  one  meets  with  no  decided  opposition 
from  parents.  A  habit  of  this  sort,  well  developed,  will, 
of  course,  do  much  to  keep  the  floors  free  from  dirt. 

14.  Leaving  the  Room.  The  beginning  teacher  is  apt 
to  encounter  some  trouble  with  regard  to  this  matter; 
for  in  view  of  the  rather  dehcate  nature  of  the  subject, 
it  is  difficult  to  deal  with  it  frankly  and  effectively.  When 
a  teacher  is  sure  of  himself  and  has  the  discipline  of  his 
room  well  estabHshed,  pupils  in  all  grades  above  the  fourth 
may  be  permitted  to  leave  the  room,  imder  certain  restric- 
tions, without  asking  permission ;  but  it  is  not  wise  for  the 


46  CLASSROOM    MANAGEMENT 

beginning  teacher  to  grant  this  privilege  at  the  outset, 
for  with  the  average  child  constituted  as  he  is,  it  is  a 
privilege  that  is  certain  to  be  abused.  On  the  other  hand, 
the  constant  interruption  of  pupils  asking  for  permission 
is  a  serious  source  of  inconvenience.  The  best  plan  is  to 
say  nothing  about  the  matter  until  the  interruptions  be- 
come so  numerous  as  to  be  a  disturbing  factor.  When 
this  time  comes,  the  pupils  who  ask  most  frequently  should 
be  spoken  to  privately  to  discover,  if  possible,  whether  the 
necessity  really  exists.  In  case  the  pupil  states  that  it  is 
necessary  to  leave  the  room  more  than  once  in  a  session, 
the  teacher  should  request  a  written  statement  from 
parent  or  physician  to  that  effect,  and  then  make  a  special 
case  of  this  particular  pupil,  allowing  him  the  privilege 
without  requiring  a  request  each  time. 

With  the  normal  child,  however,  regular  habits  should 
be  speedily  estabHshed  with  regard  to  the  bodily  func- 
tions. With  a  recess  each  session,  the  number  of  pupils 
requesting  to  leave  the  room  during  class  hours  should  be 
reduced  to  a  minimum.  In  some  schools  the  hnes  are 
passed  to  the  latrines  and  closets  at  each  recess  before 
being  allowed  to  go  upon  the  playground,  and  this  will 
gradually  control  the  difficulty.  One  teacher  of  the 
writer's  acquaintance,  who  was  greatly  troubled  by  this 
matter  in  a  new  school,  kept  his  boys  after  dismissal  one 
evening  and  talked  to  them  good-naturedly  but  seriously 
about  the  necessity  for  forming  regular  habits,  suggesting 
that  the  bowels  be  encouraged  to  move  every  morning 
before  school  time.    The  talk  had  a  good  effect,  not  only 


MECHANIZING   ROUTINE  47 

upon  the  discipline  of  the  school,  but  also  upon  the  health 
of  the  pupils.  This  matter  is  comparatively  simple  for  a 
male  teacher  to  deal  with  in  the  case  of  boys,  but  presents 
greater  difl&culties  for  a  woman  teacher.  Nevertheless,  even 
in  such  cases,  private  admonition  would  probably  have  a 
good  effect,  and  a  tactful  teacher  should  be  able  to  make 
suggestions  without  causing  embarrassment  to  either  party. 

In  general,  it  is  safer  to  run  the  risk  of  having  the  privi- 
lege abused  than  to  run  the  counter  risk  of  causing  bodily 
injury  to  the  pupil,  especially  through  the  retention  of 
urine.  For  the  beginning  teacher,  a  poHcy  of  wide  lati- 
tude in  this  matter  is  far  safer  than  one  of  close  restriction. 

15.  Neatness  of  Written  Work  and  of  Blackboard 
Work.  One  of  the  most  accurate  indices  of  a  teacher's 
efficiency  is  the  character  of  the  papers  and  of  the  black- 
board work  that  his  pupils  produce.  These  matters  may 
not  appear,  at  first  thought,  to  be  of  profound  importance, 
and  it  is  true  that  their  significance  may  in  certain  instances 
be  overestimated.  Nevertheless  scientific  investigation  * 
indicates  that  accuracy  in  handwriting  varies  directly  as 
general  school  intelHgence ;  in  general,  the  better  the 
handwriting  —  that  is,  the  more  accurate  —  the  higher 
the  mental  attainments  of  the  pupils.  In  any  case,  the 
ability  to  train  pupils  to  produce  accurate  written  work  is 
a  fairly  good  index  of  the  teacher's  general  capacity  in 
habit-building. 

*  Cf .  A.  L.  Gesell :  "  Accuracy  in  Handwriting  as  Related  to  School 
Intelligence  and  Sex,"  in  American  Journal  of  Psychology,  1906,  vcd.  xvii, 
pp.  394-405. 


48  CLASSROOM    MANAGEMENT 

Accurate  written  work,  whether  on  paper  or  on  the 
blackboard,  involves  several  specific  features,  each  one  of 
which  can  and  should  be  reduced  to  the  plane  of  au- 
tomatism, (a)  The  writing  itself  must  be  legible.  This 
means  that  the  letters  must  be  uniform  in  height,  and  that 
each  letter  must  possess  sufficient  individual  pecuUarity 
to  permit  its  ready  recognition,  (b)  The  spaces  between 
letters  and  between  words  must  be  uniform  and  sufficient 
in  extent,  (c)  The  arrangement  of  the  written  work  must 
present  a  neat  appearance,  reveaHng  through  indentations, 
headings,  etc.,  the  main  relations  of  the  data  expressed. 
{d)  The  punctuation  should  be  meaningful  and  adapted 
to  the  conventional  but  none  the  less  important  functions 
that  the  different  punctuation  marks  fulfill,  {e)  The 
name  of  the  pupil,  the  date,  and  the  name  of  the  school 
or  number  of  the  grade  or  room  should  be  placed  at  the 
head  of  all  papers  in  a  uniform  manner.  In  blackboard 
work  the  name  of  the  pupil,  at  least,  should  appear,  and 
it  should  uniformly  be  written  neatly  and  without  super- 
fluous flourishes  (a  trivial  matter,  it  may  seem,  but  a  very 
important  index  of  the  "taste"  that  is  being  developed  in 
pupils). 

Advice  with  regard  to  the  details  just  mentioned  is  very 
frequently  couched  by  supervisors  in  very  general  terms: 
"Get  better  writing";  "Make  your  blackboard  work 
neater";  "Improve  the  form  of  your  papers."  This 
advice  frequently  fails  of  effect  for  the  reason  that  the 
teacher  does  not  recognize  the  specific  nature  of  the  habits 
that  he  attempts  to  impress.     Neat  papers  and  neat  black- 


MECHANIZING  ROUTINE  49 

board  work  involve  a  number  of  little,  specific  habits,  and 
each  of  these  must  be  taken  up  and  drilled  upon  apart 
from  the  others,  and,  in  some  measure,  apart  from  the  j 
content  or  thought  of  the  work  that  is  being  expressed. 
i6.  From  the  foregoing  discussion  it  is  manifest  that 
there  will  be  a  number  of  monitorial  positions  to  be  filled 
by  pupils  whenever  this  system  of  routine  is  adopted. 
While  some  of  these  monitors  will  be  chosen  from  those 
occupying  convenient  seats,  the  majority  of  the  positions, 
and  especially  those  involving  some  measure  of  trust  or 
responsibility,  may  be  given  as  rewards  for  good  work. 
This  phase  of  the  subject  will  be  discussed  in  a  later 
section. 

References.  —  White:  School  Management, -pp.  94-99;  Roark: 
Economy  in  Education,  pp.  40-44;  J.  S.  Taylor:  Class  Manage- 
ment and  Discipline,  New  York,  1903,  pp.  42-43;  Baldwin:  Art  of 
School  Management,  chs.  iv,  vi;  Landon:  School  Management, 
pp.  109-iri. 


CHAPTER  IV 
The  Daily  Program 

lo  To  secure  a  maximal  degree  of  efficiency  in  its  work 
the  school  must  make  the  most  effective  use  of  the  time 
at  its  disposal.  This  is  a  complex  problem,  involving  the 
adjustment  of  several  determining  factors.  Among  these 
the  following  require  detailed  consideration:  (a)  the 
length  of  the  school  year,  (b)  the  length  of  the  school  day, 
(c)  the  time  devoted  to  recesses  and  intermissions,  (d)  the 
subjects  required,  (e)  the  relative  importance  of  these 
subjects  at  different  levels  of  the  child's  development, 
(/)  the  relation  of  different  types,  of  subject-matter  to 
fatigue,  ig)  the  general  factors  of  fatigue,  and  the  sig- 
nificance of  these  factors  to  recesses,  rest-periods,  etc., 
(h)  the  time  devoted  to  general  exercises  of  all  kinds, 
(i)  the  number  of  pupils  and  the  number  of  separate  classes 
for  which  each  teacher  must  be  responsible.  As  in  the 
preceding  discussions,  these  factors  will  be  treated  in  their 
relation  to  the  classroom  teacher  rather  than  in  their 
broader  significance  to  the  duties  of  the  principal,  the 
superintendent,  or  the  school  board, 

2.  The  Length  of  the  School  Year.  This  is  com- 
monly determined  either  by  statutory  enactment  or  by 
the  decision  of   local  school  boards.    In  graded  schools 

so 


THE  DAILY  PROGRAM  5 1 

it  is  usually  either  thirty-six  or  forty  weeks;  in  rural 
schools  seldom  more  than  thirty-six  weeks,  and  generally 
much  less.  The  tendency  at  present  is  probably  toward 
a  longer  school  year,  both  in  the  cities  and  in  the  rural 
districts.  The  length  of  the  school  year  has  two  relations 
to  the  daily  program:  (a)  If  the  school  year  is  very 
short,  the  daily  program  must  emphasize  the  studies  that 
are  admittedly  important  in  elementary  education,  and 
minimize  those  that  are  less  important ;  thus  a  city  school 
that  is  in  session  forty  weeks  of  the  year  might  devote  per- 
haps thirty  minutes  each  day  to  music,  while  a  rural  school 
that  is  in  session  only  twelve  weeks  could  not  possibly 
justify  so  long  a  period,  (b)  If  the  school  year  includes  all 
or  a  part  of  the  summer  months,  the  daily  program  must 
be  so  adjusted  as  to  give  the  maximum  of  "heavy"  work 
during  the  cooler  season  of  the  year  and  the  minimum 
during  the  heated  season. 

3.  Length  0}  the  School  Day.  This  is,  of  course, 
the  prime  controUing  factor  in  the  gross  structure  of  the 
program.  The  traditional  length  of  the  school  day  in  the 
United  States  is  six  hours,  —  9  a.m.  to  12  M.  and  i  p.m. 
to  4  P.M.  Although  this  is  somewhat  shorter  than  the 
school  day  in  foreign  countries  —  notably  Germany  — 
the  prevailing  tendency  seems  to  be  still  further  to  abbre- 
viate it.  At  the  present  time  there  are  very  few  city  schools 
that  have  a  six-hour  school  day,  and  the  rural  schools  are 
coming  to  cut  it  down,  generally  by  giving  a  somewhat 
longer  noon  intermission.  In  practically  all  schools  the 
school  day  for  the  first  two  years  is  from  thirty  to  sixty 


52  CLASSROOM    MANAGEMENT 

minutes  shorter  than  that  for  the  remaining  years  of  the 
course.  The  classroom  teacher,  as  a  rule,  has  nothing  to 
do  with  determining  the  length  of  the  school  day,  except 
with  the  lower  classes  in  imgraded  schools.  In  su'-h  cases, 
and  in  the  absence  of  ruHngs  of  the  board  to  the  contrary, 
the  teacher  should,  if  possible,  dismiss  the  first  and  second 
grade  pupils  not  later  than  11:30  in  the  morning  and 
3:15  in  the  afternoon.  The  third-grade  pupils  may  be 
kept  until  noon  for  the  morning  session  and  until  3 :  30 
for  the  afternoon  session.  This  is  sometimes  out  of  the 
question  in  rural  schools  where  the  younger  pupils  must 
wait  for  their  older  brothers  and  sisters.  In  such  cases  the 
program  should  be  so  arranged  as  to  permit  the  first  and 
second  grade  pupils  to  do  the  lightest  part  of  their  work 
in  the  later  periods.  In  good  weather,  and  if  other 
conditions  are  favorable,  they  should  be  permitted  to  play 
out  of  doors. 

4.  Time  devoted  to  Recesses  and  Intermissions.  This 
must,  in  all  cases,  be  subtracted  from  the  total  time 
of  the  school  day  in  order  to  determine  the  amount  avail- 
able for  actual  school  work.  With  two  sessions  of  three 
hours  each,  the  rule  is  invariable  to  give  at  least  fifteen 
minutes  in  the  middle  of  each  session  to  "free  play"  in  the 
open  air.  When  the  afternoon  session  is  reduced  to  two 
and  one  half  or  to  two  hours,  as  it  is  in  many  of  the  city 
systems,  the  afternoon  recess  is  shortened  to  ten  minutes 
for  all  grades  up  to  the  fifth  or  sixth,  and  omitted  entirely 
for  grades  above  this  point.  The  tendency  to  do  away 
with  all  recesses  is  probably  to  be  condemned  in  the  light 


THE   DAILY  PROGRAM  53 

of  studies  on  fatigue.^  It  is  probably  best  to  have  the  recess 
in  each  session  begin  at  a  point  midway  between  the  open- 
ing and  close  of  the  session,  thus  making  the  periods  after 
recess  a  little  shorter  than  those  before  recess. 

5.  The  Subjects  to  he  Taught.  The  responsibility  of 
determining  the  subjects  of  instruction  seldom  rests  with 
the  classroom  teacher.  In  case  the  local  or  county 
authorities  do  not  prescribe  a  definite  course  of  study,  that 
prescribed  by  the  state  department  of  public  instruction 
should  be  used.  The  teacher  frequently  has  some  lati- 
tude, however,  with  certain  "accessory"  subjects  (draw- 
ing, music,  nature  study,  agriculture,  etc.),  especially  in 
schools  that  are  not  under  the  control  of  a  principal  or 
superintendent.  In  case  such  discretionary  power  is 
granted,  it  is  a  wise  rule  to  teach  only  such  of  the  accessory 
subjects  as  one  can  handle  effectively.  If,  for  example,  a 
teacher  is  weak  in  music  and  strong  in  drawing,  the  latter 
is  the  one  to  emphasize  if  a  choice  is  permitted.  Much  time 
is  wasted  in  the  attempt  to  teach  either  music  or  drawing 
by  those  who  have  neither  a  special  aptitude  nor  a  special 
training  for  such  work.  In  general,  the  fundamental 
subjects  should  be  provided  for  first,  and  then  whatever 
time  can  be  spared  may  be  devoted  to  the  accessory 
subjects. 

^  "  Recess  time  has  been  displaced  in  many  places  by  brief  physical 
exercises  in  the  schoolroom.  The  school  appears  more  mannerly,  more 
subdued,  more  orderly.  By  this  means  there  is  not  so  much  chance  for 
lowering  the  moral  tone  by  speech  or  action  on  the  school  grounds.  But 
how  about  the  physical  condition  of  the  child?" — W.  A.  Baldwin: 
Industrial  Social  Edtication,  Springfield,  Mass.,  1903,  p.  46. 


54  CLASSROOM    MANAGEMENT 

6.  The  Relative  Importance  of  the  Various  Subjects. 
The  time  to  be  allotted  to  each  subject  manifestly  de- 
pends very  largely  upon  the  importance  of  the  subject 
in  relation  to  others.  This  must  frequently  be  determined 
by  the  teacher,  although  in  many  systems  definite  rulings 
are  made  by  the  superintendent  which  relieve  the  teacher 
from  responsibility  in  the  matter. 

The  prevailing  practice  in  American  schools  seems  to 
indicate  that  the  "form"  studies  (reading,  virriting,  arith- 
metic, spelling,  and  language)  are  more  important  in  the 
elementary  school  than  the  content  studies  (geography, 
history,  literature,  physiology,  etc.).  Dr.  B.  R.  Payne,* 
summarizing  the  programs  of  ten  typical  American  cities, 
finds  that  the  formal  studies  receive  sixty-two  per  cent  of 
the  assigned  time,  while  the  content  studies  receive  but 
little  more  than  thirty  per  cent.  In  spite  of  the  opinion  of 
many  competent  authorities^  that  more  "content"  work 

*  B.  R.  Payne:  Public  Elementary  School  Curricula,  New  York,  1905, 

P-  39- 

'  For  example,  Payne,  op.  cii.,  pp.  197  S.,  constructs  what  he  terms  an 
"ideal"  course  of  study  for  American  schools  in  which  he  allots  to  the 
various  subjects  the  following  per  cent  of  the  total  time:  Scripture 
opening  exercises,  10%;  English  (including  reading,  spelling,  writing, 
grammar,  literature,  and  oral  and  written  composition),  27.5%;  arith- 
metic, 12.5  % ;  geography,  7.5  % ;  history  and  civics,  7.5  % ;  nature  study, 
7.5%;  drawing,  5%;  music,  5%;  physical  training,  7%;  and  hand 
work,  10%.  This  maybe  profitably  contrasted  with  his  findings  for  the 
ten  cities  mentioned  above:  opening  exercises,  3.1%;  reading  and 
literature,  20.7%;  writing,  4.7%;  spelHng,  4.7%  ;  language  and  gram- 
mar, 14.4%;  arithmetic,  17.3%;  geography,  7.2%;  history  and  civics, 
4.8%;  nature  study,  3.4%;  physiology,  0.7%;  physical  training,  4-7%; 
drawing,  6.4%;  music,  5.1%;  manual  training,  2,4%.  It  will  be  noted 
that  arithmetic,  language,  and  drawing  are  cut  down  in  Mr.  Payne's  pro- 


THE   DAILY  PROGRAM  55 

should  be  given  in  the  elementary  school,  the  prevailing 
practice  receives  some  support  from  theoretical  considera- 
tions. The  preadolescent  years  which  are  represented  by 
the  elementary  school  seem  preeminently  to  be  the  time 
for  drill,  discipline,  and  the  formation  of  habits,  and  it  is 
these  things  that  the  so-called  "form"  studies  emphasize. 
Again  it  is  fairly  well  established  that  an  overemphasis 
of  content  work  must,  by  a  law  of  compensation,  detract 
from  the  efl&ciency  of  form  work.  In  other  words,  the  evi- 
dence of  practical  hfe  indicates  that  pupils  who  have  had 
the  advantage  of  a  very  "rich"  curriculum  —  a  curriculum 
overloaded  with  "content"  subjects  —  are  weak  in  the 
formal  requirements  when  they  leave  the  elementary 
school. 

7.  Wherever  the  young  teacher  has  an  option  in  this 
matter,  then,  it  would  seem  to  be  the  wise  plan  to  follow 
the  prevaihng  practice.^  From  the  standpoint  of  program- 
building,  this  conclusion  carries  with  it  several  corollaries : 
(a)  the  best  periods  of  the  day  should  be  given  to  the  for- 
mal subjects ;  (b)  if  sacrifices  are  necessary,  the  content 
subjects  should  be  sacrificed,  at  least  in  the  lower  grades ; 
(c)  the  bulk  of  the  time  should  be  devoted  to  the  formal 
work ;  (d)  if  any  extra  periods  are  available  —  say  five- 
minute  periods  just  before  the  noon  hour,  or  before  the  clos- 

posed  allotment,  while  the  time  to  be  given  to  opening  exercises,  history, 
geography,  and  manual  training,  is  decidedly  increased. 

^  This  is  not  to  imply  that  one  should  do  the  "safe "  thing  from  motives 
of  policy.  If  the  teacher  is  convinced  that  the  content  work  should  re- 
ceive the  greater  emphasis,  he  should  lose  no  opportunity  to  act  in  accord- 
ance with  his  honest  convictions. 


56  CLASSROOM    MANAGEMENT 

ing  hour  —  they  should  be  given  to  drills  upon  those  phases 
of  formal  work  in  which  pupils  show  especial  weakness. 

Both  this  conclusion  and  its  corollaries  are  somewhat  quali- 
fied by  the  factors  of  development.  The  seventh  and  eighth 
grades  belong  to  the  adolescent  period  of  growth,  and  it  is 
generally  agreed  that,  at  this  time,  there  should  be  some  relaxa- 
tion of  drill,  and  a  greater  enrichment  of  the  curriculum  from 
the  content  standpoint.  Measures  looking  toward  these  ends 
can  be  easily  adopted  if  the  drill  work  has  been  well  done  in 
the  preadolescent  period,  and  the  programs  for  these  upper 
grades  should  be  constructed  with  reference  to  this  qualification. 

8.  The  Relation  of  Subject-matter  to  Fatigue.  The 
above  conclusions  must  be  submitted  to  another  and 
broader  quaUfication.  The  "form"  subjects  are,  in 
general,  more  fatiguing  than  the  "content"  subjects,^ 
hence  they  are  not  only  to  be  given  the  most  favorable 
periods  of  the  day,  as  is  demanded  by  their  greater  im- 
portance, but  they  are  also  to  be  arranged  in  such  a  manner 
that  two  fatiguing  subjects  will  not  follow  one  another 
directly.  It  is  also  to  be  remembered  that  the  periods 
devoted  to  the  form  subjects  must  not  be  too  long,  else  the 
effectiveness  of  the  work  will  be  decreased  through  fatigue. 
Thus  it  is  sometimes  well  to  give  two  short  periods  rather 
than  one  long  period  to  certain  of  the  formal  drills,  plac- 
ing a  content  subject  in  the  intervening  period. 

9.  The  General  Factors  of  Fatigue.    The  capacity  for 

^  Mathematics,  formal  language  work  (including  spelling,  penmanship, 
and  formal  grammar),  formal  gymnastics,  and  foreign  languages  are 
most  fatiguing  according  to  the  best  authorities;  nature  study,  geog- 
raphy, history,  singing,  and  drawing  are  least  fatiguing.  See  citations, 
Educative  Process,  p.  341. 


THE   DAILY   PROGRAM  57 

sustained  attention  or  work  manifests  itself  in  rhythms. 
The  best  work  is  never  done  at  the  outset,  but  only  after 
a  certain  inertia  has  been  overcome  and  a  certain  mo- 
mentum gained.^  The  daily  "work  curve"  or  "course  of 
power,"  on  a  school  day,  reaches  its  highest  point  between 
nine  and  ten  in  the  morning,  and  then  dechnes  rapidly, 
reaching  a  minimum  at  noon.  In  the  afternoon,  the  high 
point  of  the  curve  is  reached  shortly  after  two  o'clock,  but 
this  point  is  much  lower  than  the  morning's  maximum. 
The  decHne  is  not  so  rapid  as  in  the  morning,  but  the 
minimum  is  somewhat  lower.^  It  follows  from  these  laws 
that  the  heaviest  work  must  be  assigned  for  the  morning 
periods  immediately  preceding  the  first  recess.  The  tasks 
that  stand  next  in  "fatiguing  power"  should  be  distributed 
between  the  morning  periods  after  recess  and  the  after- 
noon periods  prior  to  half-past  two. 

Again  the  rule  is  subject  to  qualification.  As  was  shown 
above,  it  is  not  wise  to  have  two  difficult  subjects  —  especially 
two  "form"  subjects  —  in  succession,  nor  is  it  consistent  with 
good  hygiene  to  have  in  close  succession  two  subjects  that 
involve  writing.  Practical  experience  proves  that  it  is  best  not 
to  have  writing  or  drawing  or  other  exercises  requiring  minute 
muscular  adjustments  immediately  after  a  recess  or  immedi- 
ately after  the  noon  intermission.  "Class  exercises  needing 
steady  nerves,  such  as  writing  or  drawing,  ought  not  to  follow 
a  recess  or  any  time  of  physical  exertion."  ^ 

Recuperation  from  fatigue  can  be  secured  in  a  complete 

*  For  authorities,  see  O'Shea,  Dynamic  Factors  in  Education,  New 
York,  1906,  p.  282. 

^  See  Educative  Process,  pp.  340  fiF.  ;  also  O'Shea,  op.  cit.,  pp.  292  f. 
'  A.  N.  Raub;  School  Management,  Philadelphia,  1897,  p.  73. 


58  CLASSROOM    MANAGEMENT 

form  only  by  nutrition  and  sleep,  but  a  partial  restitution 
may  be  accomplished  through  (i)  "free  play"  (that  is, 
spontaneous  activity  preferably  in  the  open  air)  and  (2)  re- 
laxation. Formal  gymnastic  exercises  have  been  proved 
to  be  more  fatiguing  than  any  other  school  "study"  except 
mathematics/  This  does  not  mean,  of  course,  that  there 
should  be  no  place  for  gymnastics  in  the  program,  but 
simply  that  gymnastics  must  not  be  looked  upon  as 
recreative  exercises  in  the  popular  sense  of  the  term. 

10.  General  Exercises.  It  is  customary  in  nearly  all 
schools  to  devote  some  time,  generally  at  the  opening 
of  the  morning  session,  to  exercises  of  a  general  nature. 
These  may  fulfill  several  functions:  (a)  "When  carefully 
planned  and  inteUigently  carried  out,  they  constitute  an 
effective  remedy  for  tardiness  and  irregularity  of  attend- 
ance; they  can  be  made  so  interesting  that  the  pupils 
will  let  nothing  get  in  the  way  of  prompt  attendance  upon 
them."  ^  {h)  They  ofifer  an  opportunity  to  give  explicit 
instructions  in  matters  that  are  not  touched  upon  in  the 
regular  work  of  the  school.  "The  teacher  will  frequently 
have  remarks  to  make  to  the  school,  reproof  may  need  to 
be  administered,  or  cautions  may  need  to  be  given.  None 
of  these  ought  to  interfere  with  the  recitations  of  the  day."  ^ 
(c)  They  offer  an  opportunity  to  begin  the  work  of  the 
day  upon  a  high  plane.  It  is  for  this  reason  that  devo- 
tional exercises  of  a  simple  nature  are  thoroughly  in  place 

*  Cf.  O'Shea,  op.  cil.,  p.  222;  also  Educative  Process,  p.  341. 

'  R.  N.  Roark:  Economy  in  Education,  New  York,  1905,  pp.  49-50. 

*  Raub,  op.  cit.,  pp.  73-74. 


THE   DAILY  PROGRAM  59 

at  this  time,  unless  prohibited  by  legislative  enactment  or 
by  public  sentiment,  {d)  One's  fund  of  knowledge  is 
drawn  in  as  great  amount,  perhaps,  from  general  sources 
as  from  specific  and  organized  sources.  That  is,  one 
picks  up  items  of  information  from  general  talks,  cursory 
reading,  casual  observation,  and  these  unrelated  facts 
form  no  small  part  of  one's  intellectual  capital.  They 
may  be  less  valuable,  less  accurate,  than  the  items  of 
knowledge  obtained  by  sytematized  study;  but  they  are 
important,  nevertheless,  and  some  provision  for  their 
gleaning  should  be  made  by  the  school.  General  exercises 
probably  offer  the  best  medium  for  this  purpose. 

In  arranging  the  daily  program,  then,  time  should  be 
allowed  for  general  exercises  of  some  description,  and  it  is 
perhaps  best  to  place  them  at  the  beginning  of  the  morn- 
ing session.  From  five  to  fifteen  minutes  may  be  profit- 
ably utilized  in  this  way ;  probably  the  average  in  the  bet- 
ter schools  is  ten  minutes.  Here,  if  anywhere,  it  is  quality 
rather  than  quantity  that  counts. 

II.  The  Number  of  Pupils  and  the  Number  of 
Classes.  These  two  factors  are  by  far  the  most  trouble- 
some to  the  classroom  teacher  in  making  out  a  program. 
The  problem  is  far  from  simple  in  the  graded  school 
where  a  single  teacher  has  but  one  grade  divided  into 
two  classes,  one  half  year  apart  in  age  and  classification. 
Where  two  grades  with  three  or  four  different  classes  are 
given  to  one  teacher,  the  problem  is  much  more  compli- 
cated, but  the  greatest  complication  is  met  with  in  the  un- 
graded schools  where  one  teacher  must  teach  all  classes  in 


6o  CLASSROOM    MANAGEMENT 

all  subjects.  In  the  discussion  of  the  problems  involved  in 
adjusting  the  program  to  these  conditions,  it  will  be  well 
to  begin  with  the  simple  conditions  of  the  graded  school.^ 

The  Graded  School  Classroom  Program.  Assuming  the  room 
to  contain  but  one  grade  divided  into  two  groups,  the  mem- 
bers of  each  of  which  are  approximately  equal  in  capacity  and 
attainments  (and  this  assumption  must  be  made  in  practice),  the 
first  point  is  to  determine  the  number  of  minutes  in  the  school 
day.  This  is  done  by  subtracting  from  the  total  time  the  num- 
ber of  minutes  given  to  recesses,  intermissions,  and  general  exer- 
cises. The  required  subjects  are  then  enumerated,  and  the 
available  time  divided  by  the  number  representing  the  total  of 
required  subjects,  in  order  to  see  what  time  can  be  devoted  to 
each,  assuming  that  all  are  equal  in  value.  This  average  time 
should  then  be  divided  by  two,  in  order  to  determine  the  length 
of  each  study  and  recitation  period.  The  average  length  must 
then  be  compared  with  the  accepted  standard  length  of  the  pe- 
riod for  the  grade  in  question.  These  standard  lengths  of  peri- 
ods as  given  in  the  table  commonly  credited  to  Chadwick  and 
generally  adopted  in  the  United  States  are  as  follows :  5-7  years, 
15  minutes;  7-10  years,  20  minutes;  10-12  years,  25  minutes; 
12-16  years,  30  minutes. 

In  most  grades  the  quotient  of  the  available  time  divided 
by  the  number  of  subjects  required,  and  this  divided  by  two 
in  order  to  equalize  study  and  recitation  periods,  will  be  much 
smaller  than  the  number  represented  by  the  above  table  for 
the  grade  in  question.  It  therefore  becomes  necessary  to  make 
an  adjustment  (i)  by  determining  the  subjects  that  will,  from 
their  nature,  require  no  study  period,  and  (2)  if  the  grade 
standard  is  not  thus  secured,  by  providing  that  certain  subjects 

*  If  one  teacher  has  charge  of  but  one  class,  the  problem  is,  of  course, 
extremely  simple.  But  this  condition  is  seldom  met  with  in  American 
schools. 


THE   DAILY  PROGRAM  6l 

shall  be  taught  only  on  alternate  days.  Even  then  it  may 
become  necessary  to  cut  down  the  time  recommended  as  the 
standard  length  of  period  for  the  grade  in  question. 

To  take  a  concrete  instance :  suppose  the  grade  to  be  the  fifth, 
the  sessions  to  last  from  9  to  12  and  from  1:15  to  4,  with  a  re- 
cess of  15  minutes  for  each  session,  and  the  required  subjects 
to  be  the  following :  reading,  arithmetic,  geography,  language 
or  grammar,  history,  physiology,  writing,  spelling,  nature  study, 
music,  drawing,  physical  training,  and  "morals  and  manners." 
For  the  "teaching"  of  these  thirteen  subjects,  305  minutes  will 
be  available,  after  deducting  30  minutes  for  recesses  and 
10  minutes  for  general  exercises.  If  all  subjects  are  to  be 
given  an  equal  allotment  of  time  each  day,  it  is  clear  that  each 
will  receive  approximately  24.2  minutes.  This  would  give 
1 2.1  minutes  to  each  study  and  recitation  period,  or  about  one 
half  the  standard  period's  length  —  and,  moreover,  a  period 
far  too  brief  for  effective  work.  It  may  be  assumed,  however, 
that  the  following  subjects  will  require  no  study  period :  music, 
drawing,  physical  training,  nature  study,  and  morals  and  man- 
ners. But  even  if  these  are  to  be  given  the  standard  period 
(25  minutes  for  this  grade)  each  day,  there  will  not  remain 
enough  time  to  supply  the  other  subjects  adequately.  Either 
alternation  of  subjects  or  reduction  of  the  standard  length  of 
period  is  absolutely  necessary. 

It  is  perhaps  best  to  try  alternation  first.  It  is  evident  that 
nature  study  and  drawing  can  be  conveniently  alternated. 
Morals  and  manners,  while  constantly  emphasized,  need  receive 
explicit  attention  only  once  a  week,  but  physical  training  must 
come  every  day,  although  it  need  not  occupy  the  full  period. 
The  following  arrangement  seems  therefore  to  be  justified :  draw- 
ing or  nature  study,  alternating,  20  minutes  daily ;  physical  cul- 
i^ure,  10  minutes  daily ;  music,  20  minutes  daily,  except  for  one 
day,  when  morals  and  manners  may  occupy  the  music  period. 

The  subjects  named  can  be  taught  to  both  classes  simul- 


62  CXASSROOM    MANAGEMENT 

taneously.  There  are  two  other  subjects  that  are  amenable  to 
similar  treatment,  —  spelling  and  penmanship.  For  the  former, 
at  least  20  minutes  daily  should  be  apportioned,  10  minutes 
for  study  and  10  minutes  for  recitation.  For  written  recitation, 
words  can  be  dictated,  first  to  one  class,  then  to  the  other. 
Oral  spelling  can  be  provided  for  by  assigning  the  same  les- 
son to  both  classes.  This  is  especially  valuable  for  frequent 
reviews  on  words  commonly  misspelled.  Writing  should  have 
at  least  15  minutes  daily,  and  may  be  given  to  both  classes 
at  the  same  time.  The  total  daily  apportionment  thus  pro- 
vided will  amount  in  all  to  85  minutes.  Subtracting  this  from 
the  305  minutes  available  for  all  work,  220  minutes  will  be  left 
for  apportionment  to  the  subjects  requiring  study  periods, 
assuming  that  grammar  (or  language),  history,  and  physiology 
are  all  text-book  subjects  as  they  usually  are  in  the  fifth  grade. 
The  220  minutes  divided  among  the  six  subjects  will  give  less 
than  40  minutes  for  each,  or  less  than  20  minutes  for  a  study 
or  recitation  period.  Again,  either  alternation  or  shortening 
the  standard  is  required.  The  only  subjects  among  the  six 
that  will  permit  alternation  are  history  and  physiology.  Sup- 
pose these  to  be  alternated;  the  total  is  now  constructively 
diminished  by  one.  But  five  subjects  will  still  not  permit 
full  25  minutes  for  study  or  recitation.  The  last  resort 
is  a  partial  shortening  of  the  standard,  which  is  inevitable 
wherever  the  contingency  arises  and  where  home  study  is  not 
permitted.*  This  partial  shortening  can  be  accomplished  by 
allowing  some  subjects  25  minutes  for  study  and  20  minutes 
for  recitation.  In  other  words,  if  a  certain  period  is  25  minutes 
in  duration,  the  next  can  be  made  20  minutes,  the  next  25 
minutes,  and  so  on.  While  one  class  recites,  the  other  studies, 
so  that  approximately  45  minutes  may  be  devoted  by  each 
class  to  each  of  the  text-book  subjects.    In  both  classes,  how- 

*  In  the  writer's  opinion,  home  study  should  be  permitted  not  earlier 
than  Prade  V,  and  preferably  not  prior  to  Grade  VIL 


THE   DAILY   PROGRAM 


63 


ever,  one  subject  will  be  limited  to  40  minutes.  Care  should 
be  taken  that  this  will  not  be  a  subject  of  great  importance  for 
this  grade.  The  following  program  is  based  upon  this  arrange- 
ment. It  is  inserted  merely  as  suggestive  of  a  possible  outcome 
of  the  situation  that  we  have  imagined.  "R"  indicates  recit- 
ing class;  ''S  "  indicates  study  class.*  "A"  is  the  latter  half  of 
the  fifth  grade ;  *' B "  the  first  half. 


Period 


9:00-  9: 10 
9 :  10-  9 : 20 
9 :  20-  9 : 30 

9:30-  9:5s 
9:55-10:15 
10: 15-10:30 
10:30-10:45 
10: 45-11 : 10 
II :  lo-ii : 30 
11:30-11:50 
II :  50-12: 00 

1:15-  1 :  40 
1 :  40-  2 :  00 
2 :  00-  2 :  20 
2 :  20-  2 :  30 
2:30-  2:45 
2 :  45-  3 : 10 
3:10-  3:30 

3:30-  3:50 

3 :  50-  4 :  00 


Dura- 
tion 


10 
10 
10 

25 
20 

15 

15 
25 
20 
20 
10 

25 
20 
20 
10 

IS 

25 

20 
20 
10 


^A"  Class 


B"  Class 


Opening  ExerciseS/, 

S.  spelling    ^iUtt 

R.  spelling  ^ 

R.  reading 

S.  arithmetic 

Writing 

Recess 

R.  arithmetic 

S.  geography 

R.  geography 

Physical  culture 

S.  grammar 
R.  grammar 
S.  history  or  physiology 
Music 
Recess 

R.  history  or  physiology 
S.  reading 

Drawing  or  nature  study 
Music,  4  days,  morals 


Opening  exercises 

S.  spelling 

R.  spelling 

S.  arithmetic 

R.  arithmetic 

Writing 

Recess 

S.  reading 

R.  reading 

S.  geography 

Physical  culture 


6cJ^^-j7^tlJ 


R.  geography  \J^l<  ' 

S.  grammar^,^^^/^/^,,^ 

R.  grammaf/^    //  /7  ^    -^ 

M,usic  u 

Recess  ' 

S.  history  or  physiology 

R.  history  or  physiology     -  ff 

Drawing  or  nature  study  ^^^^''^1^'f 

and  manners,  i  day  1 


The  above  program  has  some  apparent  weaknesses.  Spell- 
ing, for  example,  is  given  the  first  period  in  the  morning,  while 
in  most  schools  it  is  placed  at  some  less  important  period.    The 

*  "  The  best  programs  show  what  is  being  done  at  the  seats  as  well  as 
what  is  being  done  in  recitation."  —  Akron,  Ohio,  Course  of  Study,  1904, 
p.  174. 


64  CLASSROOM    MANAGEMENT 

disposition,  however,  to  place  drill  subjects  at  unfavorable 
periods  is  probably  to  be  condemned,  and  to  give  the  first 
school  period  to  spelling  is,  especially  in  the  intermediate  grades, 
a  commendable,  although  not  a  common,  practice.  Penman- 
ship is  given  the  period  just  prior  to  the  morning  recess.  This 
is  open  to  criticism  in  that  it  makes  a  writing  exercise  follow 
arithmetic;  it  is  justified  only  on  the  ground  that  the  15 
minutes  just  prior  to  recess  is  too  brief  for  any  other  subject 
that  is  entitled  to  a  favorable  morning  period,  and  also  by  the 
fact  that  writing  should  not  come  immediately  after  any  recess 
or  intermission  because  of  the  difficulty  of  making  fine  adjust- 
ments after  vigorous  exercise ;  thus  by  a  method  of  elimination 
the  period  assigned  seems  to  be  the  only  period  available. 
The  10  minutes  just  preceding  the  noon  intermission  are  not, 
perhaps,  the  best  time  for  physical  exercises ;  but  in  view  of  the 
fact  that  these  are  very  fatiguing  whenever  effectively  carried 
on,  it  is  difficult  to  find  a  period  when  they  will  not  have  a 
deleterious  influence  upon  other  work.  The  division  of  the 
music  into  two  periods  could  also  be  objected  to.  The  last  10 
minutes  of  the  day,  however,  are  frequently  devoted  to  sing- 
ing, and  the  arrangement  indicated  may  be  interpreted  as 
meaning  that  this  is  to  be  the  policy  here.  The  other  music 
period  just  preceding  the  afternoon  recess  may  profitably  be 
devoted  to  instructional  and  drill  work  in  music.  All  of  the 
text-book  subjects  are  allotted  45  minutes,  except  geography 
of  the  "A"  class  and  grammar  of  the  "B  "  class.  It  would  be 
better,  of  course,  if  the  "cut"  could  come  altogether  from  the 
content  subjects,  but  this  is  impracticable  because  the  content 
subjects  aside  from  geography  —  physiology  and  history  — 
have  already  been  reduced  in  time-allowance  by  alternation. 

The  Three- class  Program.  If  three  classes  are  in  charge  of 
one  teacher,  there  is  no  alternative  but  to  shorten  the  periods 
for  recitation  and  increase  the  time  devoted  to  seat  work,  unless, 
as  is  frequently  the  case,  different  classes  may  pursue  some 


THE   DAILY   PROGRAM 


6s 


assignments  in  common.  Supposing  this  not  to  be  the  case, 
however,  it  is  clear  that  two  thirds  of  the  time  allotted  to  each 
text-book  subject  must  be  devoted  to  seat  work,  and  one  third 
to  recitation.  For  an  example  of  this  type  of  program,  let  us 
assume  that  the  teacher  has  the  following  classes:  IV  "A,"  V 
"  B,"  and  V  "  A."  In  all  probability  the  course  of  study  will 
show  practically  the  same  subjects,  except  that  two  reading  les- 
sons will  be  prescribed  for  the  fourth  grade  to  replace  physiology 
and  history.  Practically  the  same  disposition  can,  therefore, 
be  made  of  the  music,  drawing,  nature  study,  morals  and 
manners,  and  (perhaps)  spelling  and  penmanship.  Thus 
approximately  220  minutes  will  be  available  for  distribution 
among  the  five  text-book  subjects.  By  taking  5  minutes 
from  one  of  the  other  branches,  —  perhaps  music  will  be  best 
able  to  stand  the  sacrifice, —  this  total  will  be  increased  to  225 
minutes.  The  advantage  of  doing  this  is  obvious :  each  of  the 
five  text-book  subjects  can  be  allotted  45  minutes,  and  this 
time  can  be  divided  into  a  study  period  of  30  minutes  and  a 
recitation  period  of  15  minutes.  Needless  to  say,  the  study 
periods  are  too  long  and  the  recitation  periods  too  short;  but 
this  will  always  be  the  case  where  more  than  two  classes  are 
placed  in  charge  of  a  single  teacher.  The  following  program 
indicates  the  advantage  of  the  division  into  45-minute  units :  — 


Period 

Length 

V  "A"  Class 

V"B"  Class 

IV  "A"  Class 

9: 00-  9: 10 

10 

Opening  exercises 

Opening  exercises 

Opening  exercises 

9:  10-  9: 30 

20 

Spelling 

Spelling 

Spelling 

9:30-  9:4s 

S.  arithmetic 

S.  arithmetic 

R,  reading 

9:  45-10:00 

S.  arithmetic 

R.  arithmetic 

S.  arithmetic 

10:00-10:  IS 

R.  arithmetic 

S.  reading 

S.  arithmetic 

10: 15-10:30 

Writing 

Writing 

Writing 

10: 30-10:45 

Recess 

Recess 

Recess 

10:45-11:00 

S.  reading 

S.  reading    • 

R.  arithmetic 

11 :  00-11:  15 

S.  reading 

R.  reading 

S.  geography 

11: 15-11:30 

R. reading 

S.  geography 

S.  geography 

11:30-11:45 

IS 

S.  geography 

S.  geography 

R.  geography 

11:45-12:00 

IS 

S.  geography^ 

R.  geography 

S.  reading 

66 


CLASSROOM    MANAGEMENT 


Period 

Length 

X 

IS-  1:30 

IS 

I 

30-  1:4s 

IS 

1 

45-  2:00 

IS 

3 

00-  3: IS 

IS 

3 

15-  2:30 

15 

3 

30-  2 :  45 

15 

3 

45-  3:00 

15 

3 

00-  3: 15 

15 

3 

IS-  3:30 

15 

3 

30-  3:50 

30 

3 

SO-  4:00 

10 

V  "  A  "  Class 


V"B"  Class 


IV  "A"  Class 


R.  geography 
S.  grammari 
S.  gramm; 
grammar 


^1-^ 


S.  grammar  S.  reading 

S.  grammar  R.  reading 

R.  grammar  S.  language 

S.  physiology,  history  S.  language 


Divided  between  physical  culture  and  music 
Recess  Recess  Recess 

S.  physiology,  history  S.  physiology  R.  language 

S.  physiology  R.  physiology  S.  reading 

R.  physiology  S.  arithmetic  S.  reading 

Drawing  or  nat.  st.    Drawing  or  nat.  st.    Drawing  or  nat.  st. 
Music,  4  days  a  week,  morals  and  manners,  i  day 


Upper  Grade  Programs.  On  account  of  the  numerous  lines 
of  work  demanded  by  modern  courses  of  study  for  the  upper 
grades,  it  is  imperative  that  one  or  two  assignments  be  prepared 
aw  home.  A  brief  reference  to  either  of  the  above  programs 
will  show  how  much  the  problem  of  program-making  would  be 
simplified  if  at  least  one  subject  could  be  assumed  in  each  class 
to  be  provided  for  by  home  study.  Above  the  sixth  grade, 
however,  where  effective  periods  must  be  at  least  25  minutes 
in  length,  it  would  be  impossible  to  arrange  a  satisfactory 
program  without  this  provision. 

The  program  (page  67)  suggests  a  possible  distribution  of  the 
eighth-grade  work.  The  "A'*  class  prepares  arithmetic  and 
spelling  at  home,  the  "B'*  class,  history  and  speUing.  The 
text-book  periods  are,  with  three  exceptions,  30  minutes  in 
duration.  (The  abbreviation  "H.P."  indicates  home  prepara- 
tion.) 

It  will  doubtless  be  practicable  in  most  instances  to  have 
the  two  classes  study  the  same  literary  masterpieces;  this 
would  enable  both  classes  to  "recite"  literature  at  the  same 
period.  No  time  is  allotted  for  physical  exercises,  and  if  these 
are  prescribed,  it  will  be  necessary  to  cut  two  more  periods  to 
25  minutes. 

The  Ungraded  School  Program.    An  inspection  of  the  three- 


THE   DAILY  PROGRAM 


67 


Period 

Length 

"A"  Class 

"B"  Class 

9 :  00-  9 :  10 

10 

Opening 

Opening 

9:  10-  9: 20 

10 

Spelling  (H.P.) 

Spelling  (H.P.) 

9 :  20-  9 : 50 

30 

R.  arithmetic  (H.P.) 

S.  arithmetic 

9:  50-10: 20 

30 

S.  grammar 

R.  arithmetic 

10:  20-10:  30 

10 

Writing 

Writing 

10 :  30-10 :  45 

15 

Recess 

Recess 

10:45-11:15 

30 

R.  grammar 

S.  grammar 

11: 15-11:40 

25 

S.  physiology  or  civics 

R.  grammar              ^     > 
study  or  agriculture^  ^ 

11:40-12:  00 

20 

Drawing  or  nature 

1:15-1  ••  45 

30 

S.  history 

R.  history  (H.P.) 

1:4s-  2:15 

30 

R.  history 

S.  physiology  or  civics 

2:15-  2:30 

IS 

Music 

Music 

2:30-  2:45 

15 

Recess 

Recess 

2:45-  3:10 

25 

R.  physiology  or  civics  * 

S.  literature » 

3' 10-  3' 35 

25 

S.  literature  ^ 

R.  physiology  or  civic^  * 

3:3s-  4:00 

25 

R.  literature  ^ 

R.  literature  i^^^^J:^' 4 

'^ 


class  program  (page  66)  will  indicate  the  diflBiculties  that  are 
to  be  overcome  when  the  number  of  classes  is  increased  beyond 
two.  The  recitation  periods  must  be  greatly  abbreviated,  the 
study  periods  proportionately  lengthened,  and  the  classes  com- 
bined wherever  the  effective  teaching  of  the  subject  will  in  any 
measure  permit  combination. 

The  most  practical  arrangement  for  an  ungraded  school  is 
probably  that  proposed  by  the  late  Dr.  Emerson  E.  White.^ 
According  to  this  plan,  the  time  of  the  teacher  is  equitably  dis- 
tributed among  three  classes  of  pupils,  representing  approxi- 
mately the  primary,  intermediate,  and  grammar  grades.  The 
recitation  periods  are  20,  25,  and  30  minutes  in  length,  the 
longer  periods  being  assigned  to  the  older  pupils.  Provision 
is  made  for  frequent  changes  of  work  during  the  long  study 


*  Manual  training  may  be  provided  for  by  alternation  in  these  periods. 

*  E.  E.  White :  School  Management,  pp.  86-94. 


68 


CLASSROOM    MANAGEMENT 


periods,  especially  for  the  younger  pupils.  Modifications  of 
this  general  plan  have  been  incorporated  into  several  state 
manuals.  The  following  four-class  arrangement  is  a  suggestive 
variant. 

A  FOUR-CLASS   PROGRAM   RECOMMENDED  FOR 

UNGRADED   SCHOOLS  IN  NEW  YORK  ^ 

(Exercises  italicized  are  for  the  reciting  class.) 


Time 

ist  Year 

3d  Year 

6th  Year 

8th  Year 

0:00-  9:10 

Opening  ex. 

Opening  ex. 

Opening  ex. 

Opening  ex. 

9:10-  9:30 

Reading 

Reading 

Reading 

Reading 

9:30-  9:50 

Copying 

Reading 

Reading 

Reading 

9: 50-10: 10 

Emplo3rment 

Reading 

Arithmetic 

Arithmetic 

10: 10-10:  25 

Dismissed 

Arithmetic 

Reading 

Arithmetic 

10:  25-10:  35 

Recess 

Recess 

Recess 

Recess 

10:35-10:45 

Number 

Arithmetic 

Arithmetic 

Arithmetic 

10:45-11:05 

Drawing 

Arithmetic 

Arithmetic 

Arithmetic 

11:05-11:  25 

Employment 

Arithmeiic 

Arithmetic 

History 

11:25-11:45 

Dismissed 

Reading,  Spelling  Arithmetic 

History 

11:45-12:00 

English 

Geography 

History 

1:00-  1:05 

Singing  or 

other  exercises 

I : 05-  I : 20 

Reading 

Reading,  Spelling  Geography 

English 

1 :  20-  1 :  30 

Copying 

Reading,  Spelling  Geography 

English 

1:30-  1:45 

Drawing  ' 

Drawing  * 

Drawing  » 

Drawing  » 

1:45-  2:00 

Physiology  ' 

Physiology  » 

Geography 

English 

3 :  00-  2 : 20 

Dismissed 

Miscellaneous 

Phys.,  English 

English 

2 :  20-  2 : 35 

Writing 

Writing 

Physiology 

2:35-  2:45 

Recess 

Recess 

Recess 

Recess 

2:45-  2:55 

General  lessons 

»'-SS~  S'oo 

Miscellaneous 

Geography 

Phys.,  English 

Civil  government 

3:00-  3:15 

Tracing 

Geography 

Phys.,  English  ♦ 

Phys.,  dv.  goT.  • 

3:15-  3:30 

Dismissed 

Geography 

SpeUing 

Civil  government 

3:30-  3:4s 

Dismissed 

Spelling 

Civil  government 

3:45-  4:00 

spelling 

Special  work 

*  4gth  Annual  Report,  Department  of  Public  Instruction,  New  York, 
1903,  Appendix  4. 

'  Drawing:  two  or  three  classes;  two  recitations  a  week. 

*  Physiology :  two  classes ;  two  or  three  recitations  a  week. 

*  English :  two  classes ;  three  recitations  a  week ;  more  if  possible. 

*  Civil  government  may  be  alternated  with  some  other  study. 


THE   DAILY   PROGRAM  6g 

12.  The  program-maker  in  the  elementary  school  can- 
not fail  to  be  impressed  with  a  very  grave  danger  that  is 
inherent  in  the  present  tendency  to  enrich  the  curriculum 
by  the  addition  of  a  host  of  new  subjects.  How  diflScult 
it  is  to  find  time  for  the  adequate  presentation  of  accepted 
subject-matter  is  quite  evident  from  the  above  discussion. 
The  length  of  the  periods  for  the  various  grades  is  the 
result  of  long  years  of  schoolroom  practice  and  seems  to 
indicate  both  a  maximal  and  minimal  time  for  effective 
and  economical  work.  To  shorten  periods  below  this 
limit  is  to  risk  a  serious  waste  both  of  time  and  energy. 
Moreover,  the  addition  of  each  new  subject  must,  if  car- 
ried beyond  a  certain  point,  detract  from  the  effectiveness 
of  instruction  in  other  subjects.  There  is  a  law  of  mental 
activity  somewhat  analogous  to  the  law  of  diminishing 
returns  in  agriculture.  Variety  up  to  a  certain  point  is 
essential  to  effective  mental  work;  variety  beyond  that 
point  promotes  dispersed  attention  and  inadequate  ap- 
perception. In  the  struggle  to  "teach''  everything  that 
is  now  demanded,  the  school  is  forced  to  give  almost  every 
subject  a  superficial  treatment.  This  is  wrong  both  from 
the  standpoint  of  school  economy  and  from  the  standpoint 
of  mental  development.* 

13.  Holding  to  the  Program,    Practically  all  principals 

*  A  recent  writer  in  the  School  Journal  proposes  a  possible  reform  in 
this  direction  by  advocating  that  all  the  subjects  of  major  importance  — 
in  brief  the  "three  R's"  — be  given  the  bulk  of  the  time  in  the  ele- 
mentary school,  and  that  the  "accessory"  subjects  be  taught  by  lectures, 
readings,  and  exercises  involving  a  minimal  expenditure  of  energy  on  the 
part  of  the  child^ 


70  CLASSROOM    MANAGEMENT 

and  superintendents  of  schools  agree  that  the  beginning 
teacher  should  hold  rigidly  to  the  program  and  time- 
table. This  is,  at  first,  a  rather  difl&cult  matter.  There  are 
innumerable  temptations  to  hold  a  class  a  moment  with 
one  subject  until  a  certain  point  has  been  made  or  a  cer- 
tain conclusion  driven  home.  It  is,  of  course,  debatable 
whether  this  is  not  justified,  but  it  is  the  writer's  experi- 
ence that  the  results  are  much  better  if  the  time-table  is 
adhered  to  rigidly.  There  would  seem  to  be  a  sound 
reason  back  of  this  conclusion.  In  the  first  place,  it  is 
comparatively  simple  to  establish  the  habit  of  adjusting 
one's  work  in  preparation  to  fit  the  period  for  which  it  is 
intended ;  thus  the  teacher,  after  a  httle  experience,  is  able 
to  bring  each  lesson  to  a  satisfactory  finish  within  the  period 
allowed.  In  the  second  place,  if  the  teacher  begins  to 
extend  or  abbreviate  the  periods,  it  soon  becomes  impos- 
sible to  designate  the  point  at  which  work  is  to  be  varied. 
"Going  over"  the  allotted  time  becomes  a  habit  that 
entails  much  waste  and  no  little  injustice.  In  the  third 
place,  almost  every  teacher  is  apt  to  prefer  some  subjects 
to  others,  and,  unless  a  strenuous  effort  is  made  to  be 
impartial,  it  will  be  practically  impossible  to  escape  length- 
ening the  favorite  periods. 

References.  —  White:  School  Management,  pp.  86-94;  Roark: 
Economy  in  Education,  pp.  64-72;  Seeley:  A  New  School  Manage- 
ment, ch.  v;  Baldwin:  Art  of  School  Management,  pt.  iv,  ch.  v; 
M.  V.  O'Shea:  Dynamic  Factors  in  Education,  New  York,  1906, 
ch.  xviii. 


CHAPTER  V 

Regularity  and  Punctuality  of  Attendance 

1.  Irregularity  of  attendance  is  a  serious  source  of 
waste  in  all  grades  of  the  school ;  but  for  obvious  reasons  it 
is  most  troublesome  in  the  lower  grades  where  the  stimulus 
of  the  teacher  and  of  class  instruction  is  so  essential  to 
progress.  Delinquent  pupils  not  only  miss  the  work  that 
has  been  done  during  their  absence,  but  they  necessarily 
retard  the  progress  of  the  class  when  they  return.  In  other 
words,  the  habitual  delinquent  is  a  dead  weight  that  the 
remainder  of  the  class  is  forced  to  carry. 

2.  Regular  Attendance  should  become  a  Habit.  The 
aim  in  all  measures  looking  toward  the  improvement  of 
attendance  is  to  make  regularity  and  punctuality  of 
attendance  a  habit  with  every  pupil.  It  is  not  until  this 
point  has  been  reached  that  maximal  economy  of  school 
administration  from  this  point  of  view  can  be  attained. 
Here  as  elsewhere,  so  long  as  the  struggle  between  impulse 
and  idea  is  a  conscious  struggle,  waste  must  ensue.  The 
following  discussion,  therefore,  must  consider  the  applica- 
tion of  the  law  of  habit-building  to  this  problem.  How 
can  this  important  habit  be  initiated,  and  how  may  repe- 
tition be  sustained  until  automatism  results? 

It  will  be  recognized  at  the  outset  that  there  must  be 
a  certain  irreducible  minimum  of  absence  and  perhaps 

n 


72  CLASSROOM    MANAGEMENT 

also  of  tardiness  in  every  school.  Moreover,  this  irre- 
ducible minimum  will  vary  with  different  grades,,  different 
localities,  and  different  seasons  of  the  year.  Consequently 
an  absolute  standard  cannot  be  adopted:  one  cannot  lay 
down  a  hard-and-fast  rule  that  ninety-four  or  ninety-seven 
per  cent  of  the  pupils  enrolled  should  be  present  at  school 
every  session.  The  standard  can,  however,  be  established 
within  certain  limits.  Probably  all  authorities  would 
agree  that  a  school  showing  an  average  attendance  lower 
than  ninety  per  cent  of  its  enrollment  would  be  greatly 
handicapped  in  doing  effective  work,  and  furthermore 
that  such  a  condition  should  be  remedied,  and  could  be 
remedied  if  the  proper  methods  were  employed.  All 
authorities  would  also  probably  agree  that  a  school  show- 
ing an  average  daily  attendance  of  ninety-eight  per  cent 
of  its  pupils  could  do  very  effective  work  (other  things 
equal),  and  furthermore  that  attempts  to  secure  a  higher 
per  centum  would  involve  a  danger  that  must  never  be  over- 
looked —  namely,  that  some  pupils  would  be  forced  to  at- 
tend school  when  such  attendance  would  be  inimical  to 
their  health.^ 

3.  What  constitutes  a  Necessary  Delinquency  ?  Whether 
distinctly  provided  by  statute  or  not,  it  should  be  definitely 
understood  in  every  public  school  that  the  only  acceptable 

*  In  computing  the  per  centum  of  attendance,  the  number  enrolled 
should  not,  of  course,  include  those  who  have  been  registered  and  then 
transferred  to  other  schools.  It  is,  however,  unjust  to  consider  the  num- 
ber "belonging"  in  place  of  the  number  enrolled,  if,  by  the  number 
belonging,  one  means  all  who  have  not  been  absent  more  than  three  or 
five  consecutive  days,  as  is  done  in  most  schools. 


REGULARITY  AND  PUNCTUALITY  OF   ATTENDANCE    73 

excuse  for  absence  or  tardiness  is  either  the  presence  of 
some  condition  that  would  make  attendance  inimical  to 
the  pupil's  health,  or  the  existence  in  the  pupil's  home  of  a 
very  serious  misfortune.  Absence  from  school  or  tafdiness 
in  coming  to  school  caused  by  employing  the  pupil  in 
services  either  at  home  or  elsewhere  should  not  be  con- 
sidered as  legitimate.  If  the  child's  services  are  required 
either  directly  or  indirectly  to  provide  the  necessities  of 
life,  the  case  is  one  demanding  attention  from  the  poor 
commissioners.  If  lack  of  proper  clothing  prevents 
regular  attendance,  the  community  should  provide  such 
clothing.  All  this  is  not  charity;  it  is  public  economy. 
In  view  of  the  disturbing  influence  of  absence  and  tardi- 
ness upon  the  work  of  the  school  as  a  whole,  and  in  view 
of  the  heavy  cost  of  maintaining  a  pubhc  school  system, 
no  other  position  is  tenable.  This  does  not  mean  that  the 
school  is  to  be  the  "juggernaut"  so  vividly  described  by 
opponents  of  compulsory  education ;  it  simply  means  that 
school  work  is  to  be  recognized  as  a  serious  business,  and 
that  the  time,  energy,  and  wealth  expended  upon  the  school 
system  are  to  make  an  adequate  return ;  it  simply  means 
that  the  rights  of  the  majority  are  not  to  be  invaded  and 
invaUdated  by  the  whims  or  the  incompetency  of  the 
minority. 

4.  The  habit  of  regular  and  punctual  attendance  must 
be  initiated  by  estabUshing  this  principle.  How  can  this 
be  done  ? 

(a)  Enforcing  Attendance  Statutes  and  Rulings.  Fortu- 
nately most  of  the  states  (except  in  the  South)  have  forti- 


74  CLASSROOM    MANAGEMENT 

fied  education  with  laws  that  compel  the  attendance  of 
all  children  of  school  age  during  the  time  that  school  is  in 
session,  unless  they  are  excused  for  one  of  the  two  reasons 
mentioned  above.  Some  of  these  laws,  it  is  true,  have  been 
made  practically  ineffective  through  sharp  manipulation, 
but  the  majority  can  be  enforced.  And  yet,  even  where 
the  legal  conditions  are  ideal,  the  per  centum  of  attendance 
is  often  deplorably  low.  The  chief  difficulty  lies  in  the 
fear  of  the  teacher  to  give  offense  to  parents.  Perhaps  he 
is  strenuous  enough  with  pupils  whose  parents  are  not 
influential,  but  his  laxity  in  other  cases  much  more  than 
counterbalances  his  partial  rigorism.  This  attitude  is  not 
only  unfortunate  from  the  standpoint  of  school  efficiency 
and  economy;  it  is  improfessional,  uncraftsmanlike,  and 
inconsistent  with  the  accepted  standards  of  pubUc  service. 
How  should  unnecessary  delinquencies  be  treated  in 
communities  where  a  compulsory  education  law  operates  ? 
Simply  and  solely  as  offenses  against  discipline  and  order 
in  the  school  and  against  the  pubKc  welfare  in  society 
at  large.  Persisted  in,  they  should  be  looked  upon  as 
direct  affronts  to  the  authority  of  the  school,  and,  in  case 
the  delinquency  is  due  to  the  pupil  and  not  the  parent, 
the  action  should  be  construed  as  insubordination  and 
treated  accordingly.  Written  excuses  should  be  demanded 
in  all  instances,  and  no  written  excuse  should  be  accepted 
unless  it  is  at  least  formally  consistent  with  the  provisions 
of  the  law. 

To  act  professionally  in  matters  of  this  sort  does  not  mean 
that  one  should  act  tactlessly  and  blunderingly ;  it  does  mean, 


REGULARITY   AND  PUNCTUALITY  OF  ATTENDANCE     75 

however,  that  one  should  act  firmly.  A  courteous  note  to  the 
parent,  informing  him  of  the  statutory  requirement,  and 
briefly  explaining  its  justice,  will  often  be  effective.  If  it  is 
not,  a  personal  interview  may  remedy  matters.  If  this  measure 
fails,  there  are  still  left  an  appeal  to  the  law  and  action  through  the 
regularly  constituted  legal  channels.  If  local  authorities  refuse 
through  pressure  from  interested  parties  to  enforce  the  law,  it 
is  the  plain  duty  of  the  teacher  to  lay  the  facts  of  the  case  before 
the  state  superintendent  of  public  instruction.  Though  so 
drastic  a  policy  should  cost  the  teacher  his  position,  the  fact 
should  not  lessen  his  determination  to  be  just. 

5.  (b)  Encouraging  Regular  Attendance  by  Prizes ^  Privi- 
leges ^  etc.  The  "excuse"  system,  even  under  a  rigid  ap- 
plication of  a  compulsory  attendance  law,  will  render  it 
impossible  to  eliminate  all  unnecessary  delinquencies. 
As  long  as  the  parent's  word  is  accepted  without  investi- 
gation (and  American  ideals  of  individual  liberty  properly 
preclude  ofl&cious  prying  into  one's  private  affairs),  a  cer- 
tain amount  of  injustice  will  be  involved  in  accepting  writ- 
ten excuses.  Compulsory  education  statutes  can  mitigate 
but  they  cannot  entirely  eradicate  the  evils  of  irregular 
attendance.  Other  methods  of  initiating  the  habits  of 
regularity  and  punctuality  must  be  employed,  even  under 
the  most  favorable  conditions. 

Material  prizes  for  all  who  reach  a  certain  standard  in 
attendance  are  justifiable  under  exceptional  conditions. 
They  often  fail,  however,  to  reach  the  cases  that  are  most 
troublesome.  Immaterial  prizes  (certificates  of  perfect 
attendance,  "honor"  seats,  names  published  in  the  local 
paper  if  attendance  is  perfect,  etc.)  are  more  to  be  preferred, 


76  CLASSROOM    MANAGEMENT 

and  are  sometimes  extremely  effective.  Exemptions  from 
school  duties  (half  holidays  for  those  perfect  in  attendance 
for  the  month  is  a  typical  example)  may  be  employed  as  a 
last  resort,  and  especially  in  communities  where  there  is 
no  compulsory  attendance  law.^  Where  such  a  law  exists, 
it  is  possible  that  such  a  practice  would  be  declared 
illegal  by  the  courts.  It  may  be  objected  that  these 
measures  propose  to  give  some  sort  of  prize  for  attendance 
even  when  the  law  states  that  attendance  is  a  duty  and 
delinquency  a  misdemeanor.  Nevertheless  the  difficulty 
of  probing  into  every  case  of  absence  renders  the  law  par- 
tially inoperative,  and  remedial  measures  are  in  such  cases 
justified. 

6.  ic)  Competitions  in  Attendance  and  Punctuality.  In 
a  large  graded  school,  or  in  a  city  or  county  system  of 
schools,  it  is  often  possible  to  create  an  effective  esprit  de 
corps  with  respect  to  absence  and  tardiness  by  instituting 
a  competition  for  school  honors  in  freedom  from  delinquen- 
cies. Some  principals  have  reports  of  attendance  sent  to 
the  office  daily  or  weekly,  and  then  compile  a  Hst  of  rooms 
in  the  order  of  excellence  in  attendance.  A  reward  in  the 
shape  of  a  banner  for  the  room  showing  the  best  attendance 
during  the  term  may  add  zest  to  the  competition,  although 

*  The  case  is  somewhat  peculiar  in  the  high  school  where  compulsory 
laws  do  not  commonly  apply.  Cf.  the  following:  "The  most  valuable 
expedient  for  good  attendance  that  I  have  found  ...  is  the  exemption 
of  those  pupils  perfect  in  attendance  and  punctuality  for  a  specified  period 
from  the  formal  examinations  covering  that  period."  —  H.  M.  Hart: 
"How  to  Get  and  Keep  Pupils  in  the  High  School,"  in  Inter-Mountain 
Educator,  1906,  vol.  i,  p.  170. 


REGULARITY   AND   PUNCTUALITY   OF   ATTENDANCE     77 

good   results   can   be  obtained   without   employing  this 
device. 

All  attempts  to  secure  good  attendance  (and  especially  the 
competitive  device  just  mentioned)  must  be  rigorously  subjected 
to  the  qualifications  that  have  been  so  frequently  referred  to 
in  the  foregoing  discussions.  There  can  be  such  a  thing  as 
attendance  that  is  too  nearly  perfect,  A  shortsighted  principal 
or  teacher,  in  his  enthusiasm  for  results  in  this  regard,  is  apt  to 
create  a  nervous  tension  among  his  pupils  that  v^^ill  prevent  even 
legitimate  absence.  This  condition  should  not,  of  course,  be 
permitted  to  exist.  The  difficulty  lies  in  effecting  a  compromise 
between  leniency  and  stringency.  It  is  easy  to  overstep  the 
limit  on  either  side,  and  the  teacher  must  be  constantly  on  his 
guard  against  this  tendency.  There  are  no  explicit  directions 
that  will  avail  in  this  matter.  One  must  depend  entirely  upon 
one's  judgment  and  good  sense.  But  the  danger  must  be  con- 
stantly borne  in  mind. 

7.  Tardiness.  The  foregoing  discussion  has  been  de- 
voted chiefly  to  the  consideration  of  absence.  The  gen- 
eral principles  brought  out  apply,  however,  to  tardiness. 
Tardiness  is,  in  some  respects,  a  greater  evil  than  absence, 
but  it  should  never  be  made  to  appear  so  in  the  child's  eyes, 
else  he  will  be  apt  to  remain  out  of  school  during  the 
entire  session  if  he  chances  to  arrive  a  few  minutes  late. 
The  habit  of  tardiness  is  worse  than  occasional  absence 
because  it  is  apt  to  be  carried  over  into  later  life  and  to 
cause  the  individual  no  end  of  trouble  in  its  eradication. 
The  child  should  very  early  form  the  habit  of  meeting  every 
engagement  promptly,  and  there  is  no  way  to  form  this 
habit  save  by  making  tardiness  a  serious  offense. 


78  CLASSROOM    MANAGEMENT 

Aside  from  those  delinquencies  in  punctuality  that  are 
due  to  conditions  in  the  child's  home,  and  which  should  be 
treated  as  similar  delinquencies  in  attendance  are  treated, 
the  greatest  trouble  arises  from  the  "naturally"  dilatory 
child.  In  young  children  this  is  often  due  to  an  inade- 
quate "time  sense"  (more  properly  "time  judgment"). 
This  is  usually  a  result  of  arrested  development.  The 
judgment  of  time  intervals  is  not  a  native  gift,  but  an  ac- 
quisition, and  the  only  way  for  the  young  child  to  acquire 
it  is  through  the  pleasure-pain  economy.  For  the  habitu- 
ally tardy  pupil  there  is  probably  no  remedy  so  effective  in 
stimulating  time  judgment  as  a  judicious  use  of  corporal 
punishment,  provided,  of.  course,  that  the  tardiness  is 
due  entirely  to  the  pupil's  carelessness. 

8.  Habits  of  punctuaUty  may  be  fortified  and  generahzed 
by  concrete  instruction  on  their  practical  value  in  the 
social  and  business  world.  The  time  allotted  to  instruc- 
tion in  "morals  and  manners"  or  "ethics"  (which  is  so 
commonly  given  to  something  else)  might  profitably  be 
used  in  part  for  this  purpose.  This  is  a  field  in  which  a 
little  "preaching"  may  perhaps  be  more  than  commonly 
effective,  for  the  alert,  competent,  "hustHng"  business 
man  is  the  popular  hero  of  the  day,  and  punctuality  is  one 
of  his  chief  virtues.  Anecdotes  drawn  from  business  life, 
backed  up  by  rigorous  insistence  on  punctuality  in  school 
life,  will  do  much  toward  building  up  an  active  and  effec- 
tive ideal  of  punctuality  among  the  pupils. 

Interesting  opening  exercises,  as  stated  in  a  former  section, 
will  help  to  curtail  tardiness. 


REGULARITY   AND   PUNCTUALITY    OF   ATTENDANCE     79 

In  some  schools  there  are  two  bells  at  the  beginning  of  every 
session,  —  a  signal  for  forming  lines  and  passing  to  the  class- 
rooms, and  a  "tardy''  bell.  Where  this  plan  is  followed, 
technical  tardiness  (arrival  after  the  tardy  signal)  can  be  almost 
entirely  eliminated  by  treating  rather  seriously  those  pupils 
who  fail  to  pass  to  their  rooms  with  the  lines.  In  general,  the 
question  of  tardiness  is  least  troublesome  where  there  is  a  large 
school  bell  which  rings  five  or  ten  minutes  before  the  session  is 
begun. 

9.  Should  Delinquencies  in  Attendance  and  Punctual- 
ity detract  jrom  Pupils^  Standing  in  Scholarship  ?  This 
is  a  question  that  admits  of  argument.  It  cannot  be 
doubted  that  absence  from  class  exercises  theoretically 
prevents  a  pupil  from  reaching  the  standard  gained  by 
his  fellows  who  have  been  regular  in  attendance.  Indeed, 
if  an  habitual  absentee  is  just  as  well  prepared  for  the 
work  of  the  following  grade  as  is  a  pupil  who  has  been 
regular  in  attendance,  the  fact  is  an  unfortunate  commen- 
tary upon  the  character  of  the  instruction  and  training 
afforded  by  the  class  work.  Nevertheless  it  is  true  that 
the  delinquent  pupil  may  sometimes  be  just  as  capable  of 
fulfilling  the  conditions  of  the  higher  grade  as  is  the  pupil 
who  has  been  perfect  in  attendance.  On  the  other  hand, 
to  count  absence  arbitrarily  against  scholarship  standing 
is  often  extremely  effective  in  impelling  all  pupils  to  regu- 
lar attendance,  and  the  temptation  is  strong  to  employ  the 
incentive  to  its  limit.  While  such  a  measure  is  justifiable 
in  very  obstinate  cases,  it  could  hardly  be  reconmiended 
for  general  practice.  To  retain  a  pupil  for  a  second  term 
in  the  same  grade  except  for  deficient  scholarship  is  a  very 


8o  CLASSROOM    MANAGEMENT 

severe  penalty.  It  means  practically  the  loss  of  a  year  or 
half-year  of  the  child's  Ufe,  and  tends  to  discourage  him 
from  further  effort. 

References.  —  Seeley.  A  New  School  Management^  pp.  107-110; 
Kellogg:  School  Management,  ch.  vi;  Tompkins:  Philosophy  of 
School  Management^  pp.  70-71. 


CHAPTER  VI 
Preserving  Hygienic  Conditions  in  the  Classroom 

1.  A  school  environment  that  is  free  from  factors 
making  for  ill  health  is  manifestly  of  prime  importance  in 
securing  maximal  efiSciency  in  the  operation  of  educative 
forces.  Specialized  investigation,  undertaken  especially 
in  Germany,  has  made  school  hygiene  one  of  the  most 
complete  and  trustworthy  departments  of  appUed  science, 
and  every  teacher  should  master  the  fundamental  prin- 
ciples of  school  hygiene  at  least  to  the  extent  in  which  they 
are  set  forth  in  such  text-books  as  those  of  Kotelmann  ^ 
or  Shaw.^  The  present  chapter  will  indicate  only  those 
practical  rules  that  the  classroom  teacher  should  have 
constantly  in  mind,  laying  particular  emphasis  upon  the 
hygienic  habits  which  it  is  the  duty  of  every  teacher  to 
develop  in  his  pupils. 

2.  Hygienic  Habits  of  Posture.  One  of  the  very  first 
tasks  that  a  new  teacher  should  set  for  himself  is  the 
initiation  of  proper  habits  of  sitting.  So  much  of  the 
pupil's  time  is  spent  at  his  desk  and  during  a  period  of 
development  when  bad  postures  easily  become  fixed  into 
permanent  malformations,  that  this  matter  is  of  the  very 
greatest  importance. 

*  L.  Kotelmann :  School  Hygiene,  English  trans.,  Syracuse,  1899. 
'E.  R.  Shaw:  School  Hygiene,  New  York,  1901. 

G  81 


82  CLASSROOM    MANAGEMENT 

Whatever  the  form  of  seat  found  in  the  classroom,  it 
should  fulfill  three  conditions :  (a)  it  must  permit  an  upright 
position  of  the  body ;  (b)  it  must  provide  a  support  for  the 
back ;  (c)  it  must  permit  the  pupil's  feet  to  rest  squarely  upon 
the  floor.  Adjustable  seats  should  certainly  be  provided 
for  growing  children,  but  this  matter  is  not  often  within  the 
classroom  teacher's  control.  Generally  he  must  make  the 
best  of  existing  conditions.  Practically  all  schoolroom  seats 
fulfill  the  first  two  conditions,  but  the  third  is  often  a  source 
of  difl&culty.  If  pupils  are  *'  hung  up  "  (the  technical  term 
for  the  position  in  which  their  feet  do  not  rest  squarely  upon 
the  floor),  the  only  recourse  is  to  provide  blocks  of  wood 
for  them  to  rest  their  feet  upon.  This  is  not  the  best  thing 
for  the  appearance  of  the  classroom  or  for  the  temper  of 
the  janitor  or  sweepers,  but  it  is  absolutely  essential  to 
the  welfare  of  the  child. 

3.  Even  in  classrooms  that  are  provided  with  adjustable 
seats,  however,  one  frequently  finds  most  imhygienic 
postures.  The  most  common  defect  is  the  reclining  po- 
sition, where  the  pupil  "slides  down"  in  his  seat  until  the 
body  is  entirely  supported  by  the  lower  end  of  the  spinal 
column  (which  rests  on  the  front  edge  of  the  seat)  and  the 
back  of  the  neck  (which  rests  against  the  top  of  the  seat 
back).  The  legs  are  stretched  under  the  desk  and  the 
head  is  thrust  forward.  The  evils  of  this  position  are 
obvious  at  a  glance.  The  spinal  column  is  curved  out- 
ward, the  shoulders  are  thrust  forward,  the  chest  is  de- 
pressed, and  proper  breathing  is  prevented.  In  addition 
to  these  disastrous  consequences,  the  appearance  is  in- 


HYGIENIC  CONDITIONS   IN  THE   CLASSROOM  83 

dicative  of  an  inert,  shiftless  relaxation  that  is  quite  incon- 
sistent with  effective  concentration  of  attention.  Another 
common  malposition  is  the  forward  incHnation  of  the 
body,  compressing  the  chest  against  the  front  edge  of  the 
desk. 

The  only  safeguard  against  unhygienic  posture  is  a 
careful  demonstration  of  the  correct  position  and  a  strenu- 
ous insistence  upon  this  position  until  the  pupils  assume 
it  at  all  times  as  a  matter  of  habit.  This  does  not  mean 
that  the  pupil  is  to  be  permitted  no  freedom  of  movement, 
or  that  he  is  to  be  kept  constantly  in  a  rigid  posture. 
Indeed,  if  the  requirement  is  new  to  the  pupils  (as  will  fre- 
quently be  the  case),  it  will  be  wise  to  introduce  frequent 
relaxation  or  "rest"  periods  during  the  first  few  days. 
It  will  take  time  to  accustom  the  muscles  to  a  fairly  con- 
stant adjustment,  but  it  can  be  done  successfully  if  per- 
sisted in,  just  as  the  army  recruit  can  be  trained  into 
soldierly  form.  In  any  case,  variety  should  be  secured 
by  a  change  from  one  hygienic  posture  to  another  hy- 
gienic posture  —  not  by  a  change  from  a  bad  posture  to 
one  that  is  worse. 

4.  The  Writing  Posture.  This  is  an  extremely  impor- 
tant matter.  If  pupils  sit  ".sidewise"  at  the  desk  while 
they  are  writing,  one  shoulder  is  almost  always  slightly 
higher  than  the  other.  A  long  continuance  of  such  a  pos- 
ture will  inevitably  cause  lateral  curvature  of  the  spine. 
It  is  for  this  reason  that  a  system  of  penmanship  is  de- 
manded that  will  render  impossible  the  sidewise  position, 
and  among  other  virtues  this  has  been  one  of  the  chief 


84  CLASSROOM    MANAGEMENT 

characteristics  to  recommend  vertical  writing.  If  vertical 
writing  is  prescribed  for  the  schools,  every  classroom 
teacher  should  see  to  it  that  the  proper  position  is  taken : 
feet  flat  on  the  floor,  head  well  elevated,  paper  directly  in 
front  of  the  pupil,  its  front  edge  on  a  hne  parallel  to  a  line 
connecting  the  pupiVs  eyes.  Not  to  make  this  position  a 
matter  of  unvarying  habit  is  to  repudiate  the  chief  virtue 
of  the  system. 

The  reaction  against  the  vertical  writing  has  led  to  a 
compromise  termed  the  "rational"  or  "medium"  slant. 
The  position  for  this  writing  is  stated  by  some  authorities 
to  be  the  same  as  that  for  the  vertical  system.  Other 
authorities,  however,  would  permit  a  slight  angle  in  the 
placing  of  the  paper.  The  great  defect  in  this  recom- 
mendation is  that  no  specific  angle  is  recommended, 
consequently  the  child  follows  the  line  of  least  re- 
sistance, which  is  to  assume  the  sidewise  posture.  In 
such  cases  the  teacher  should  determine  the  angle  that 
will  permit  the  greatest  ease  in  writing  and  at  the 
same  time  will  not  allow  the  pupil  to  shift  the  body 
from  a  position  directly  in  front  of  the  desk.  It  would 
be  a  good  plan  to  have  a  line  painted  diagonally  across 
each  desk  indicating  this  angle,  and  to  insist  that  the 
pupil  keep  the  upper  edge  of  his  paper  parallel  to  this 
line. 

5.  Posture  in  Standing,  The  erect  posture  should,  of 
course,  be  made  a  matter  of  habit  with  all  children  during 
the  formative  period  of  growth.  Careful  insistence,  forti- 
fied by  "setting  up"  exercises  such  as  are  usually  included 


HYGIENIC   CONDITIONS   IN  THE   CLASSROOM  85 

in  every  course  of  physical  training  prescribed  for  the 
schools,  will  reduce  to  a  minimum  the  troubles  that  ensue 
from  inadequate  standing  positions.  The  crying  need 
here,  as  elsewhere  in  the  elementary  schools,  is  for  teachers 
who  have  the  strength,  the  patience,  and  the  stamina  nec- 
essary to  carry  habit-forming  processes  to  a  successful 
conclusion. 

6.  Hygiene  of  Eyesight.  This  subject  should  be  worked 
up  by  each  teacher  from  some  authoritative  text-book  ^  on 
school  hygiene  or,  better,  from  a  special  work  on  the 
hygiene  of  eyesight.^  In  the  present  connection  the 
following  points  may  be  noted:  {a)  Books  and  papers 
containing  reading  matter  in  type  of  the  average  size 
should  be  held  at  a  distance  of  about  twelve  inches  from 
the  eyes.  If  pupils  find  difficulty  in  reading  type  at  this 
distance,  they  should  be  encouraged  to  consult  an  oculist. 
{h)  The  light  should  come  exclusively  from  the  left  while 
the  pupils  are  engaged  in  reading  or  writing  at  their  desks. 
{c)  "Hard"  lead  pencils  should  not  be  used  for  writing, 
because  of  the  lack  of  contrast  between  the  dull  mark  of 
the  graphite  and  the  background  of  the  paper.  Slates  are 
unhygienic  for  the  same  reason.  Slate  blackboards  are 
to  be  condemned  unless  a  soft,  white  crayon  is  used. 
{d)  Ink  —  dead  black  —  should  be  used  from  the  earliest 
possible  moment.  Many  authorities  introduce  the  use  of 
ink  in  the  second  grade  and  discourage  the  use  of  pencils 

^  For  example,  Kotelmann  or  Shaw. 

'For  example,  S.  Snell:  Eyesight  and  School  Life,  Bristol,  1895; 
J.  H.  Smith :  Defects  of  Vision  and  Hearing,  Chicago,  1902. 


86  CLASSROOM    MANAGEMENT 

after  that  time.^  (e)  Glazed  paper,  blue  white  paper,  and 
dead  white  paper  are  all  inferior  for  hygienic  reasons  to 
yellow  white,  unglazed  paper. 

7.  Fatigue  J  Relaxation^  and  Exercise.  The  subject  of 
fatigue  has  already  been  referred  to  briefly  in  connection 
with  the  structure  of  the  program.  Happily  the  problem 
of  fatigue  in  the  sense  of  overwork  is  not  a  pressing  problem 
just  now  in  American  education.  Nevertheless  it  is  wise 
constantly  to  bear  in  mind  the  factor  of  fatigue  in  reducing 
the  efficiency  of  effort.  Where  sessions  are  upward  of 
two  and  one  half  hours  in  duration,  they  should  be  broken 
by  at  least  one  recess  of  ten  or  fifteen  minutes,  given  over 
to  "free  play"  in  the  open  air.  The  writer  has  known 
advocates  of  "no  recesses"  openly  to  defend  their  poHcy 
on  the  plea  that  it  is  difficult  to  control  children  in  free 
play  —  especially  to  control  the  larger  children  in  the 
upper  grades.  Such  an  argument  requires  no  comment. 
As  stated  in  a  former  section,  formal  gymnastics  are 
not  recreative  in  the  manner  commonly  supposed.  The 
only  true  recreation  comes  from  entire  relaxation  or  from 
spontaneous  play.  The  play  should  always  be  super- 
vised in  large  schools  in  order  to  prevent  accidents.  It 
is  wise  to  provide  by  rule  against  certain  dangerous  games 
upon  the  school  grounds.  Some  of  these  may,  indeed,  be 
good,  healthful  sports,   but  with  three  or  four  hundred 


*  In  some  schools  first-grade  pupils  are  permitted  to  write  with  ink 
as  soon  as  their  penmanship  reaches  a  certain  standard  of  excellence. 
This  provides  a  stimulus  for  good  writing,  and  at  the  same  time  pro- 
motes the  interests  of  hygiene. 


HYGIENIC   CONDITIONS    IN   THE   CLASSROOM  87 

children  of  all  ages  playing  together,  they  introduce  an 
element  of  danger  that  it  is  folly  to  ignore. 

Among  the  games  that  the  writer  has  seen  fit  to  prohibit  in 
a  large  school  are  "crack  the  whip,"  ''foot-and-a-half "  (as 
distinguished  from  ''Bombay"),  baseball  or  other  ball  games 
using  a  hard  ball,  and  Rugby  football,  except  when  limited 
to  regular  teams  of  the  older  pupils.  Wrestling,  boxing,  and 
other  rough  sports  should  be  permitted  only  when  the  pupils 
are  properly  clothed  for  the  exercise,  and  when  such  activities 
do  not  degenerate  into  rough-and-tumble  scrimmages.  It  is 
wise  not  to  make  a  specific  ruling  covering  all  forbidden  sports, 
but  to  curtail  each  as  it  crops  out,  stating  the  dangers  involved, 
and  ruling  that  the  specific  game  or  exercise  shall  not  be  in- 
dulged in  during  school  hours. 

Snowballing  is  a  nuisance  if  indulged  in  promiscuously. 
The  writer  has  found  it  advisable  to  prohibit  it  (and  to  enforce 
the  prohibition  by  rigid  penalties)  both  upon  the  school  grounds 
and  in  passing  to  and  from  school.  He  has,  however,  permitted 
snowball  battles  where  the  school  premises  were  large  enough, 
curtailing  the  permission  whenever  it  was  abused. 

Playing  Marbles  ^'for  Keeps.''  Marble  playing  for  stakes, 
or  any  other  form  of  gambling,  should  be  rigidly  prohibited. 
When  the  marble  season  first  opens,  this  rule  should  be  definitely 
established.  By  passing  among  the  groups  of  boys  at  the  recess 
period  or  at  noon  intermission,  a  principal  or  teacher  can  soon 
learn  whether  the  rule  is  observed.  This  precaution  should  be 
taken,  no  matter  how  thoroughly  the  teacher  may  believe  in 
the  virtue  of  his  pupils.  Needless  to  say,  lapses  from  a  rule 
of  this  character  should  be  treated  as  most  serious  offenses. 

Cigarette  smoking,  while  hardly  to  be  classed  among  games 
and  sports,  certainly  deserves  mention  in  connection  with  pro- 
hibited exercises.  In  view  of  the  disastrous  effects  of  nicotine 
upon  young  children,  and  especially  because  of  its  interference 


BS  CLASSROOM    MANAGEMENT 

with  school  work,  all  pupils  who  are  known  to  indulge  the 
habit  at  any  time  should  be  instantly  reformed.  If  the  offense 
occurs  while  the  pupil  is  under  control  of  the  school  authorities, 
severe  penalties  can  be  imposed  without  consulting  with  parents. 
If  the  offense  occurs  at  other  times,  the  parent  should  be  notified 
at  once  and  every  effort  made  to  secure  the  cooperation  of  the 
home  in  checking  the  evil.  An  habitual  cigarette  smoker  will 
find  it  impossible  to  hide  the  evidences  of  his  vice  from  a 
teacher  who  has  normal  acuity  of  smell.  It  should  be  remem- 
bered that  the  disastrous  effects  of  smoking  are  most  marked 
during  the  preadolescent  period — prior,  perhaps,  to  the  fifteenth 
year. 

8.  Personal  Cleanliness.  The  classroom  teacher  should 
insist  rigorously  upon  personal  cleanliness  in  his  pupils. 
Almost  every  board  of  education  rules  explicitly  that  all 
pupils  shall  fulfill  reasonable  requirements  in  this  respect, 
and  where  no  ruling  is  explicitly  made,  it  can  certainly  be 
assumed  in  the  interests  of  common  decency.  Private 
admonitions  to  pupils  are  generally  effective  for  this  pur- 
pose. If  something  further  is  needed,  a  courteous  request 
to  the  parent  will  usually  bring  results.  For  very  obsti- 
nate cases  there  is  no  recourse  save  to  the  school  lavatory. 
Some  city  systems  now  provide  shower  baths  in  the  schools 
of  the  poorer  districts. 

The  teacher  can  also  do  much  to  promote  good  habits 
of  neatness  and  taste  in  matters  of  dress.  The  writer 
knows  of  one  school  where  a  tactful  but  aggressive  cam- 
paign in  this  matter  was  rewarded  by  improvement 
throughout  an  entire  community.  Needless  to  say,  the 
teacher's  example  is  here  an  all-important  factor,  as  is 


HYGIENIC   CONDITIONS   IN  THE   CLASSROOM  89 

also  the  appearance  of  the  schoolroom  and  the  school 
surroundings. 

9.  Contagious  Diseases,  Almost  every  community  pro- 
vides, through  its  health  department,  a  set  of  regulations 
governing  the  duties  of  the  teacher  in  dealing  with  con- 
tagious diseases;  but  occasional  trouble  is  caused  by  the 
failure  of  the  school  authorities  properly  to  cooperate  with 
the  health  officials  in  this  matter.  Certainly  the  school, 
as  representing  enlightenment,  should  be  the  last  to  evade 
quarantine  restrictions,  even  though  the  attendance 
record  may  be  sadly  disfigured.  All  children  who  have 
eruptions  on  the  face  or  hands  should  be  excluded  from 
school  until  a  physician  certifies  that  no  danger  of  infection 
is  involved  in  attendance.  Symptoms  of  whooping-cough 
should  be  watched  carefully,  and  suspicious  cases  should 
be  sent  home  to  await  a  physician's  diagnosis.  Parents' 
pleas  should  not  be  permitted  to  have  weight  in  such 
matters,  no  matter  how  eloquently  they  may  be  presented. 
All  children  from  quarantined  houses  should  be  excluded 
from  the  school  unless  they  are  removed  to  other  quarters, 
in  which  case  they  should  be  permitted  to  attend  only  after 
the  period  of  incubation  for  the  disease  in  question  has 
elapsed. 

A  great  many  teachers  permit  the  almost  universal  rul- 
ings with  respect  to  vaccination  to  become  "dead  letters" 
until  an  epidemic  arouses  them  to  their  duty.  It  is  not 
too  much  to  say  that  every  epidemic  of  smallpox  could  be 
prevented  if  the  school  authorities  were  constantly  vigilant 
in  requiring  the  vaccination  of  all  pupils. 


90  CLASSROOM    MANAGEMENT 

With  all  the  instruction  upon  the  subject  of  physiology  and 
hygiene  in  the  elementary  schools,  there  should  certainly  be 
some  room  for  impressing  the  simple  facts  of  pathology  and  the 
relation  of  microorganisms  to  disease.  This  is  a  matter  of  the 
first  importance  to  public  welfare.  There  are,  indeed,  many 
phases  of  the  subject  that  only  a  trained  mind  can  understand, 
but  the  simpler  facts  can  be  made  clear  to  any  child  above  the 
third  grade. 

lo.  Moral  Health.  Waste  in  the  operation  of  school 
forces  is  often  due  as  much  to  moral  as  to  physical  ill 
health.  The  mind  that  is  absorbed  in  morbid  interests 
is  bound  to  profit  in  minimal  degree  by  school  instruction. 
What  we  term  immoral  tendencies  are  not  infrequently 
*' natural"  tendencies;  they  have  their  root  in  instincts 
that  are  deeply  seated  and  fundamental.  The  problem 
is  to  prevent  an  immature,  ill-timed  development  of  these 
instincts  that  will  result  only  in  perversion.  Mental  filth, 
like  physical  filth,  grows  upon  itself:  in  the  latter  case, 
we  term  the  germ  that  makes  for  degeneration  a  bacillus ; 
in  the  former  case,  we  call  the  degenerating  germ  *' sug- 
gestion." The  suggestion  arouses  the  instinct  into  a 
premature  and  perverted  functioning,  just  as  the  physical 
germ  stimulates  the  chemical  compounds  of  animal  or 
vegetable  tissues  into  premature  decomposition. 

The  great  danger  in  a  large  school  is  that  these  degenerat- 
ing influences  will  find  lodgment  in  the  minds  of  the  chil- 
dren at  a  time  when  the  budding  instincts  provide  a  fertile 
field  for  their  growth  and  rapid  propagation.  It  is  for 
this  reason  that  recess  periods  should  be  carefully  super- 
vised, and  that  pupils  should  be  encouraged  to  engage 


HYGIENIC  CONDITIONS   IN  THE   CLASSROOM  91 

in  physical  sports  rather  than  permitted  to  congregate  in 
groups  where  the  gossip  gleaned  upon  the  streets  and 
amidst  questionable  surroundings  by  a  few  pupils  will 
contaminate  the  many.  It  is  for  this  reason  that  a  care- 
ful watch  should  be  kept  of  outhouses,  latrines,  and 
closets.  To  eliminate  and  prevent  the  shameful  condi- 
tions so  often  represented  in  these  places  by  indecent 
writing  and  drawing  requires  the  most  watchful  and  per- 
sistent care.  In  districts  where  this  particular  form  of 
vice  has  become  embedded,  it  is  often  necessary  to  make 
hourly  or  half-hourly  inspections  of  the  toilets,  tracing 
every  misdemeanor  to  its  source,  and  inflicting  the  most 
severe  penalties.  Tliis  is  not  a  pleasant  business  to  be 
concerned  with,  but  it  is  a  duty  that  no  true  craftsman 
will  shirk. 

References.  —  M.  V.  O'Shea :  Dynamic  Factors  in  Education, 
chs.  xv-xix;  L.  Kotelmann:  School  Hygiene,  chs.  ix-xiii;  E.  L. 
Thomdike:  The  Principles  of  Teaching,  New  York,  1906,  ch.  ii. 


CHAPTER  Vn 

Order  and  Discipline 

I.  The  problem  of  discipline  looks  first  to  the  welfare 
of  the  whole.  The  conditions  that  are  most  favorable 
for  the  concentration  of  attention  by  the  entire  class  must 
be  established  and  preserved,  otherwise  waste  is  involved 
which  is  cumulative  in  proportion  to  the  size  of  the  class 
or  the  number  of  pupils  in  the  room.  This  requirement 
impHes  that  each  member  of  the  class  inhibit  any  impulse 
that  may  be  inconsistent  with  these  conditions;  each 
member  of  the  class  must  subordinate  his  own  desires  to 
the  welfare  of  the  class  as  a  whole.  This  thesis  is  so 
simple  and  so  closely  parallel  to  the  requirements  that  are 
demanded  by  all  forms  of  civiHzed  society  that  it  is  strange 
that  one  should  think  for  a  moment  of  denying  the  neces- 
sity for  preserving  discipline;  and  yet  there  have  been, 
and  still  are,  educational  theorists  who  must  needs  becloud 
this  simple  proposition  with  a  haze  of  sentiment  that  dis- 
torts the  true  perspective  and  involves  in  practice  great 
waste  and  marked  injustice. 

There  is  but  one  way  to  avoid  troubles  of  discipline,  and  that 
one  way  is  to  avoid  all  measures  that  make  for  good  order,  and 
resort  to  the  laissez-faire  doctrine  that  practically  commits  one 
to  anarchy.  When  children  come  into  the  world  free  from 
every  trace  of  primitive  impulse,  evincing  none  of  the  instincts 
that  heredity  impressed  upon  the  race  long  before  it  became 

93 


ORDER  AND   DISCIPLINE  93 

human,  with  civilized  habits  bred  in  the  bone,  and  with  altru- 
istic tendencies  full-fledged  —  then  the  problem  of  discipline 
will  have  been  eliminated  from  elementary  education.  But 
then,  it  must  also  be  added,  the  need  for  education  will  have 
passed  away  and  the  teacher  will  be  a  luxury  without  a  purpose. 

2.  Authority  the  First  Condition  of  Effective  Discipline. 
The  first  condition  of  effective  discipline  is  respect  for  the 
authority  of  the  teacher.  If  this  respect  be  sufficiently 
strong,  the  whole  problem  clears  up  and  the  solution  is 
comparatively  simple.  To  permit  children  to  grow  up  in 
a  constant  attitude  of  disrespect  for  authority  is  to  commit 
the  gravest  of  pedagogical  crimes.  Legitimate  responsi- 
bility must  always  be  equalized  by  legitimate  authority; 
authority  must  always  be  checked  by  responsibihty.  The 
law  endows  the  teacher  with  sufficient  authority  to  enforce 
every  requirement  for  which  he  is  legally  and  morally 
responsible.  The  vital  question  is  how  to  assert  this 
authority  effectually  over  one's  pupils.  The  following 
discussion  will  indicate  some  of  the  salient  characteristics 
of  the  teacher  that  are  absolutely  essential  to  this  end. 

(a)  Courage.  Absolute  fearlessness  is  the  first  essential 
for  the  teacher  on  whom  rests  the  responsibility  for  govern- 
ing an  elementary  or  secondary  school.  This  fearlessness 
is  not  alone  or  chiefly  the  expression  of  physical  courage, 
although   this   must   not   be  lacking.*     It  is  rather   an 

*  In  the  training  of  wild  animals,  loss  of  "nerve"  is  fatal  to  the  trainer's 
success.  The  same  condition  holds  in  the  training  of  children  who  at 
certain  stages  of  their  development  are,  as  President  Hall  points  out, 
"the  wildest  of  all  wild  animals,"  In  either  case,  to  show  the  slightest 
sign  of  fear  is  to  surrender. 


94  CLASSROOM    MANAGEMENT 

expression  of  moral  courage;  daring  the  sometimes  cer- 
tain interference  of  parents,  officious  trustees,  and  others 
of  like  character;  standing  firm  in  one's  convictions  even 
though  the  community  may  not  approve.  And,  after  all, 
it  is  this  sort  of  courage  that  is  the  rarest  and,  at  the  same 
time,  the  most  essential.  One  must  brave  unpopularity. 
One  must  jiot- 4iesit^te,  if  necessary,  to  make  enemies, 
to  incur  the  dislike  —  temporarily,  at  least  —  of  one's 
pupils.  Happily  this  is  a  condition  that  is  not  often  to 
be  met,  neither  should  it  be  permanent  in  any  particular 
case,  and  yet  it  is  from  just  such  crises  as  this  that  the 
true  craftsman  will  not  shrink.  The  standards  of  his 
craft  should  be  far  more  precious  to  him  than  popularity 
either  with  children  or  with  parents.  The  world  is  wide, 
and  the  community  that  wishes  to  bring  up  its  children  in 
lawlessness  and  disrespect  for  authority  is  presumably  at 
liberty  to  follow  its  whims ;  but  the  schools  of  such  a  com- 
munity should  be  rigidly  boycotted  by  all  members  of  the 
teaching  guild  who  respect  themselves  and  hold  in  some 
measure  of  veneration  the  ideals  of  their  craft. 

3.  (Jb)  Tact.  The  eflScient  exercise  of  authority  must 
always"  involve  that  intangible  quality  known  as  tact. 
The  teacher  who  blunders  every  delicate  situation  of 
discipline  that  he  meets  will  fail,  whatever  degree  of  cour- 
age he  may  possess.  One  should  not  understand  by  tact 
a  willingness  to  surrender  a  single  increment  of  the  au- 
thority that  belongs  to  one.  But,  after  all,  it  is  the  result 
that  is  important  —  the  fact,  not  the  form.  If  the  teacher 
can  preserve  his  authority  without  vaunting  it  upon  all 


ORDER  AND   DISCIPLINE  95 

occasions,  his  path  of  life  will  run  smoothly.  Order  and 
respect  for  his  authority  are  the  sahent  points.  If  these 
are  secured,  it  matters  little  what  people  think,  so  long, 
of  course,  as  their  opinion  has  no  injurious  influence  upon 
his  work.  In  other  words,  there  is  no  reason  for  a  display 
of  authority  simply  to  emphasize  the  fact  of  authority. 
Those  who  exercise  the  greatest  power  in  the  world  are  the 
very  people  who  keep  the  fact  from  impinging  continually 
upon  their  neighbors'  consciousness.  The  stamping, 
storming,  blustering  teacher  or  principal  is  one  who  lacks 
tact.  The  teacher  who  "fires  up"  before  the  occasion 
demands,  declaring  that  he  will  have  order  or  "  kill  some- 
body," is  simply  inviting  serious  trouble.  The  tactful 
teacher  never  blusters,  never  brags,  never  storms  —  but 
when  occasion  demands  he  acts,  and  acts  swiftly,  unerr- 
ingly, effectively,  without  "fuss,"  without  fear  of  the  con- 
sequences. 

4.  (c)  Persistence.  In  creating  a  condition  of  order 
in  the  classroom,  it  is  essential  that  every  rule  laid  down 
be  adhered  to  rigidly,  unremittingly.  The  acme  of  good 
discipHne  is  reached  when  the  conditions  of  order  are 
preserved  automatically,  without  thought  or  judgment 
on  the  pupils'  part.  In  other  words,  a  classroom  that  is 
well  disciplined  has  the  conditions  of  good  order  reduced 
to  habit.  But  the  law  of  habit-building  operates  here 
with  unrelenting  certainty.  To  make  the  conditions  of 
order  automatic,  every  slightest  exception  must  immedi- 
ately be  noted  and  corrected.  At  first,  some  allowance 
should  be  made  for  forgetfulness  on  the  part  of  the  pupils; 


96  CLASSROOM    MANAGEMENT 

that  is,  an  exception  to  an  established  rule  should  be  cor- 
rected by  brief  admonition.  But  this  must  not  be  per- 
mitted to  continue.  *'I  didn't  think''  cannot  be  condoned 
more  than  once.  It  is  the  business  of  education  to  train 
pupils  to  **  think"  about  the  matters  that  require  thought ; 
and  pupils  who  habitually  forget  to  obey  rules  should 
have  their  memory  stimulated  by  something  more  effective 
than  an  admonition.  The  teacher  who  must  constantly 
warn  pupils  and  correct  them  for  the  same  misdeeds  over 
and  over  again  is  not  an  efficient  discipHnarian. 

The  vital  import  of  this  principle  cannot  be  too  strongly 
emphasized.  It  is  a  b)rword  that  more  teachers  fail  through 
inability  to  ''discipline"  successfully  than  through  any  other 
one  cause.  And  failure  to  discipline  is  most  commonly  due 
to  l^ck  pf  persistence.  The  teacher  lays  down  a  rule.  The 
pupils  break  it  once  or  twice  to  test  the  teacher,  or  perhaps 
they  break  it  through  forgetfulness.  The  experienced  teacher 
gives  the  pupil  the  benefit  of  the  doubt  in  such  cases  once  and 
once  only.  But  the  young  and  inexperienced  teacher  keeps 
on  with  admonitions  which  become  increasingly  ineffective  the 
longer  they  are  employed ;  or,  what  is  far  worse,  he  neglects  to 
note  a  lapse  from  the  established  rule.  That  insidious  Rip- 
Van- Winkleism,  "This  time  will  not  count,"  is  the  rock  upon 
which  many  a  teacher's  prospects  are  wrecked. 

"What  shall  I  do?"  the  young  teacher  will  surely  ask  in 
this  connection;  "What  shall  I  do  when  I  have  tried  every 
device  that  I  can  think  of,  and  still  fail  ?  "  There  is  no  explicit 
formula  that  will  cover  each  specific  case,  but  one  general  sug- 
gestion may  be  given:  Get  order.  Drop  everything  else,  if 
necessary,  until  order  is  secured.  Stretch  your  authority  to 
the  breaking  point  if  you  can  do  nothing  else.  Pile  penalty 
upon  penalty  for  misdemeanors,  and  let  the  "sting"  of  each 


ORDER  AND   DISCIPLINE  97 

penalty  be  double  that  of  its  predecessor.  Tire  out  the  re- 
calcitrants if  you  can  gain  your  end  in  no  other  way.  Remem- 
ber that  your  success  in  your  life  work  depends  upon  your 
success  in  this  one  feature  of  that  work  more  thoroughly  than  it 
depends  upon  anything  else.  You  have  the  law  back  of  you, 
you  have  intelligent  public  sentiment  back  of  you.  Or,  if  the 
law  be  slow  and  halting,  and  public  sentiment  other  than 
intelligent,  you  have  on  your  side  right,  justice,  and  the  ac- 
cumulated experience  of  generations  of  teachers. 

5.  (d)  ScholarsM^..  Those  who  have  constantly  to 
deal  with  children  well  know  how  hard  it  is  to  deceive 
them.  Pupils  may  not  detect  weaknesses  in  the  teacher's 
knowledge  of  which  he  himself  is  unaware,  but  they  will 
unerringly  detect  any  attempt  to  hide  ignorance  or  to 
"bluff."  A  teacher  whose  scholarship  is  sound  and 
secure,  who  knows  his  subject-matter,  and  who  has  the 
ability  to  present  his  knowledge  in  a  form  that  children 
can  comprehend  will,  other  things  equal,  have  less  trouble 
with  discipline  than  a  teacher  whose  knowledge  is  uncer- 
tain or  inaccurate,  and  especially  one  who  is  aware  of  his 
deficiencies  and  attempts  to  hide  them.  A  frank  con- 
fession of  ignorance  is  far  better  than  an  attempt  to  gloss 
over  inadequate  knowledge ;  but  this  confession  must  not 
come  too  often,  and  should  certainly  be  offset  by  innu- 
merable instances  of  enlightenment.  The  teacher  should 
never  lose  sight  of  the  fact  that  his  prime  duty  is  to  teachy — • 
to  transmit  to  the  child  experience  in  one  form  or  another, — 
and  that  his  chief  stock  in  trade  is  experience  or  knowledge. 
The  teacher  who  is  deficient  in  this  respect  may  maintain 
his  authority  by  force,  but  the  maintenance  of  authority 


98  CLASSROOM    MANAGEMENT 

by  this  means  alone  will  be  of  but  little  service.  It  is 
only  as  the  child  comes  to  respect  authority  spontane- 
ously —  only  as  he  comes  to  recognize  the  work  done  in 
school  as  worth  while  —  that  subservience  to  authority  will 
become  a  desirable  factor  in  his  education. 

6.  (e)  Justice.  "  Be  just  and  fear  not,"  is  an  excellent 
motto  for  a  teacher  who  wishes  to  preserve  the  conditions 
of  discipline  and  good  order.  Children,  Hke  adults,  will 
respect  what  they  beheve  to  be  justice,  and  like  adults 
they  will  resent  injustice.  Sometimes  it  is  difficult  if  not 
impossible  to  convince  children  of  the  justice  of  a  disci- 
plinary measure,  but  generally  they  will  recognize  that  a 
demand  or  a  request  is  "  fair  "  if  it  really  possesses  this 
characteristic.  The  spirit  of  "  fair  play,"  —  the  "  square 
deal "  of  which  we  hear  so  much  in  these  days,  —  makes 
a  strong  appeal  to  the  very  pupils  who  are  most  fre- 
quently troublesome  from  the  standpoint  of  discipline. 

An  essential  corollary  of  this  principle  of  justice  is  a  thorough- 
going impartiality  in  administering  disciplinary  measures.  If 
there  is  such  a  thing  as  justice,  it  applies  with  equal  force  to 
the  rich  and  the  poor,  the  influential  and  the  uninfluential. 
The  public  school  should  be  the  most  democratic  institution  in 
the  community,  —  and  it  must  be  said  in  its  favor  that  it 
usually  is.  Only  occasionally  is  the  social  "  snob  "  to  be  found 
among  the  rank  and  file  of  the  teaching  guild. 

7.  (/)  Good  Nature.  One  of  the  worst  enemies  of 
good  order  is  an  ill-tempered  teacher.  All  the  innate  evil 
in  children  seems  to  be  brought  out  and  intensified  under 
the  influence  of  a  sour,  morose,  unlikable  disposition.    On 


ORDER  AND  DISCIPLINE  99 

the  other  hand,  there  are  some  teachers  who  can  command 
respect  by  the  very  fact  of  their  genial,  sunny  dispositions. 
Doubtless  these  extremes  depend  upon  conditions  over 
which  the  individual  has  Kttle  control  —  some  people 
inherit  ill-favored  dispositions,  just  as  others  inherit 
sunshine  and  laughter.  But  every  teacher  can  control 
the  conditions  of  good  temper  in  some  measure.  First 
of  all  comes  the  matter  of  health,  and  first  in  this  category, 
sufficient  sleep.  Even  the  best  temper  will  be  ruffled  at 
the  shghtest  provocation  if  the  normal  amount  of  sleep  is 
long  denied  its  possessor.  A  good  digestion  is  too  obvi- 
ously connected  with  a  good  disposition  to  require  em- 
phasis at  this  point,  except  to  say  that  a  good  digestion 
can  often  be  acquired  by  appropriate  measures,  even  if 
heredity  has  seemingly  decreed  otherwise.  Sufficient  food 
and  whatever  outdoor  exercise  the  individual  may  need 
are  Hkewise  conditioning  factors. 

By  far  the  most  important  factor  in  this  respect,  how- 
ever, is  freedom  from  worry.  To  escape  the  pitfall  of 
"borrowing  trouble"  is  one  of  the  most  difficult  lessons 
for  the  beginning  teacher  to  learn.  The  cares  of  the  class- 
room are  not  fight,  even  under  the  most  favorable  con- 
ditions. Some  pupils  will  progress  so  slowly  that  their 
advance  is  not  to  be  detected.  Some  will  remain  out  of 
school  for  trivial  reasons,  and  so  delay  the  progress  of  the 
class.  Some  will  torment  the  teacher  with  ingenious  but 
soul-trying  mischief.  And,  as  if  these  were  not  enough, 
principals  and  supervisors  and  superintendents  will  sub- 
ject one  to  carping  criticism,  and  patrons  will  threaten  to 


lOO  CLASSROOM    MANAGEMENT 

deprive  one  of  one's  position  unless  certain  ridiculous 
demands  are  acceded  to.  To  "keep  sweet"  amidst  a 
combination  of  all  of  these  disturbing  influences  is  a  stu- 
pendous task.  It  is  simple  enough  to  say  that  it  should  be 
done :  how  to  do  it  is  another  quite  different  matter. 

For  all  of  these  vexations  and  worries  there  is,  in  the  writer's 
opinion,  no  balm  so  soothing  and  so  generally  effective  as  the 
sympathy  of  an  older  and  more  experienced  teacher.  The 
cultivation  of  outside  interests  will  help,  perhaps ;  and  certainly 
no  teacher  should  be  without  some  recreative  activity  that  is 
more  or  less  alien  to  his  daily  work.  But  outside  interests,  if 
employed  to  offset  the  trials  of  the  classroom,  will  tend  to  take 
too  much  energy  and  attention  to  themselves.  In  their  nature 
they  will  be  more  attractive  than  school  problems,  and  the 
teacher  is  apt  to  say  to  himself,  "If  I  cannot  succeed  in  teach- 
ing, I  can  at  least  do  well  at  music,  or  at  writing,  or  in  business 
pursuits."  On  the  other  hand,  sympathetic  intercourse  with 
fellow- workers  will  constantly  emphasize  the  craft  spirit, — 
the  most  priceless  possession  of  the  teacher,  and  the  possession 
that  he  is  most  likely  to  lose  in  the  earlier  stages  of  his  career. 
His  effort  should  be  to  keep  the  craft  spirit  alive  at  all  hazards. 
He  should  constantly  look  upon  his  work  as  professional  service, 
and  upon  himself  as  an  initiate  into  the  privileges  of  that  service. 
The  free  association  of  kindred  minds  will  do  more  to  keep  this 
craft  spirit  alive  than  anything  else.  Any  form  of  social  service 
must  be  dreary,  discouraging  work  if  the  tasks  that  it  imposes 
are  not  attacked  with  enthusiasm.  In  many  cities  one  may 
find  little  coteries  of  teachers  that  gather  together  at  stated 
intervals  for  the  purpose  (not  always  avowed)  of  cultivating 
the  craft  spirit,  of  keeping  alive  enthusiasm  in  the  work.  From 
these  meetings  the  pessimist,  the  malcontent,  the  teacher 
ashamed  of  his  calling,  and  the  teacher  who  works  witli  his 


ORDER  AND   DISCIPLIl^  ;  ,  ; '  tg^L 

eyes  upon  the  clock  and  his  mind  upon  pay  day,  are  all  rigidly 
excluded.  No  better  lot  can  befall  the  beginning  teacher  than 
to  become  identified  with  one  of  these  guilds  —  for  guilds  they 
are,  although  not  always  consciously.  There  he  will  find  the 
comfort  that  really  cheers,  the  advice  that  really  helps,  the 
idealism  that  really  inspires.  And  there,  too,  he  will  receive  his 
due  share  both  of  the  praise  that  will  not  pufiF  him  up,  and  of 
the  blame  that  will  not  cast  him  down.  But  above  all,  he  will 
learn  from  this  intercourse  that  the  trials  and  troubles  are  not 
his  alone,  that  many  of  them  are  intrinsic  in  the  very  nature  of 
his  calling,  and  that  the  safest  and  sanest  policy  is  to  look  upon 
them  as  problems  of  the  day's  work  —  problems  to  be  studied 
in  sober  reflection,  and  solved  with  dispassionate  judgment. 

8.  Other  Factors  involved  in  Securing  Order,  Respect 
for  the  teacher,  however,  is  not  the  sole  condition  of  order 
in  the  classroom.  Many  classrooms  in  which  the  pupils 
would  not  dare  to  break  a  rule  or  infringe  wittingly  upon 
the  rights  of  others  are  characterized  by  a  confusion  that 
makes  good  work  practically  impossible.  The  difl&culty 
here  is  not  lack  of  effective  authority,  but  rather  lack  of 
skill  in  exercising  authority. 

{a)  The  Teacher's  Voice.  Probably  superintendents 
and  principals  would  generally  agree  that,  next  to  inability 
to  secure  respectful  obedience  from  pupils,  most  of  the 
trouble  indiscipline  has  its  source  in  the  voice  of  the  teacher. 
The  temptation  to  speak  to  children  in  a  high-pitched, 
rasping  voice  is  very  hard  to  resist,  especially  when  there 
is  the  least  bit  of  noise  or  confusion  in  the  classroom.  As 
the  teacher's  voice  becomes  louder  and  louder,  the  timiult 
increases  in  like  proportions,  until  finally  one  must  shout 


t     «         f         C   f 


^6?  ; '  J  'e    :  .'/.  ci^AssRooM  management 


r  t    «    f  t 


in  order  to  be  heard.  To  one  who  tries,  for  the  first  time, 
the  remedial  measure  of  a  low  voice  in  such  a  situation,  the 
result  is  Uttle  less  than  astounding.  As  the  teacher  lowers 
his  voice,  the  hubbub  gradually  dies  away,  and  almost 
before  one  is  conscious  of  the  change,  quiet  and  order  have 
succeeded  confusion  and  chaos.  Each  pupil  is  on  the 
alert  to  catch  every  word,  and,  through  an  imitative  im- 
pulse, almost  immediately  lowers  his  own  voice  and 
modulates  its  accents  to  fit  in  with  the  new  scheme.  The 
remedy  is  so  simple  that  one  could  hardly  be  pardoned  for 
mentioning  it  here,  were  it  not  so  frequently  overlooked 
even  by  teachers  who  are  otherwise  highly  efficient. 

9.  (b)  Mechanized  Routine,  This  matter  has  been 
discussed  in  detail  in  an  earher  chapter  ^  and  needs  notice 
here  simply  as  a  factor  in  good  order.  Haphazard  methods 
of  forming  fines,  passing  materials,  etc.,  not  only  waste 
time  in  themselves,  but  also  produce  noise  and  confusion 
that  interfere  with  good  work.  Many  a  school  in  which 
disorder  prevails  could  be  almost  instantly  reformed  by  a 
few  simple  regulations  governing  routine. 

10.  (c)  Keeping  Pupils  Occupied.  This  is  one  of  those 
blanket  provisions  that  one  meets  so  frequently  in  treatises 
upon  the  subject  of  school  management.  Every  one  knows 
that  children  who  are  kept  occupied  in  some  educative  ac- 
tivity occasion  a  minimum  of  trouble  from  the  standpoint 
of  discipline.  The  chief  difficulty  fies  in  the  "  How,"  not  in 
the  "What,"  and  this  question  is  for  educational  method 
and  not  classroom  management  to  answer.    After  all,  there 

*  See  below,  ch.  iii. 


ORDER  AND  DISCIPLINE  I03 

are  in  every  school  enough  tasks  to  be  done.  The  difficulty 
lies  in  the  fact  that  some  pupils  would  rather  do  almost  any- 
thing else  than  the  tasks  that  are  imposed.  The  problem, 
therefore,  is  reduced  to  that  which  will  claim  our  attention 
in  the  following  chapters.  Incentives  must  be  suppHed 
which  will  lead  the  pupil  to  put  forth  effort  toward  the 
attainment  of  the  ends  that  he  should  seek.  Work  should, 
indeed,  be  made  interesting  and  worth  while,  but  it  is  not 
to  be  inferred  from  this  that  the  teacher  should  strain 
every  effort  to  provide  "entertaining"  tasks  for  his  pupils. 
The  very  excellent  doctrine  of  interest  has  been  far  too 
frequently  interpreted  to  mean  a  doctrine  of  entertain- 
ment. The  pupil  should  assuredly  be  kept  occupied. 
Assuredly  also  he  should,  in  course  of  time,  become  inter- 
ested in  this  activity.  But  neither  of  these  requirements 
is  or  should  be  inconsistent  with  the  functioning  in  the 
pupil's  mind  of  a  strong  and  effective  ideal  of  duty.  If 
the  teacher  possesses  sufficient  authority  and  can  assert 
this  successfully,  ideals  of  duty  can  be  cultivated  with  a 
minimum  of  trouble.  Even  under  this  condition  there 
will  still  be  plenty  of  room  left  for  applying  the  legitimate 
doctrine  of  interest. 

II.  {d)  Substitution  versus  Repression.  The  dictum, 
"Keep  pupils  busy,"  finds  a  much  more  practical  and 
dignified  expression  in  what  may  be  termed  the  "doctrine 
of  substitution."  ^  This  doctrine  would  prevent  the  ex- 
pression of  undesirable  impulses  by  substituting  some 

*  Cf .  E.  L.  Thomdike :  Principles  of  Teaching,  New  York,  1906, 
pp.  22  f.;  J.  A.  H.  Keith:  Elementary  Education,  pp.  124  f. 


I04  CLASSROOM    MANAGEMENT 

Other  form  of  activity  rather  than  by  requiring  an  abso- 
lute inhibition  of  all  movement.  Thus  the  introduction  of 
manual  training  is  justified,  from  one  point  of  view,  because 
of  the  fact  that  it  provides  objective  work  demanding  an 
exercise  of  various  muscles;  the  surplus  energy  finds  an 
outlet,  and  does  not  express  itself  in  undesirable  ways. 
The  alternation  of  form  and  content  subjects  in  the  daily 
program  also  provides  opportunity  for  an  application  of 
the  doctrine  of  substitution.  The  tendency  to  do  away 
with  recess  periods  is  to  be  condemned,  among  other 
reasons,  because  it  ehminates  an  opportunity  for  apply- 
ing this  principle.  In  general,  it  may  be  concluded  that 
substitution  is  to  be  preferred  to  absolute  repression  in  se- 
curing freedom  ixom  undesirable  and  unsocial  tendencies. 
On  the  other  hand,  it  is  quite  impossible  to  do  away  en- 
tirely with  repressing  influences.  Actual  experience  in 
managing  children  has  convinced  the  writer  that  the  intro- 
duction of  manual  training  and  hand  work  in  its  various 
forms  may  mitigate  but  certainly  does  not  eliminate  the 
difficulties  of  "discipline." 

References.  —  Seeley:    A   New  School  Management,  ch.  vi' 
Button:    School  Management,  ch.  vii;    Kellogg:    School  Manage- 
ment,   ch.    vii;     Tompkins:     Philosophy   of   School   Management, 
pp.  157-183;  Thomdike:   Principles  of  Teachings  ch.  iii;   O'Shea: 
Dynamic  Factors  in  Edttcation,  ch.  i. 


CHAPTER  VIII 
Penalties 

1.  Under  the  conditions  of  imperfection  through  which 
humanity  must  struggle,  every  form  of  government  that 
aims  to  secure  law  and  order  must  employ  penalties  for 
offenses  against  established  rules.  It  must  be  remembered 
that  not  every  individual  needs  to  be  subjected  to  a  penalty 
in  order  to  insure  the  inhibition  of  his  unsocial  impulses. 
The  infliction  of  the  penalty  is  always  the  last  resort, 
reserved  for  those  cases  in  which  all  other  means  fail. 
The  welfare  of  society  must  be  preserved  at  any  cost  to 
the  individual,  but  it  is  the  fundamental  principle  of  gov- 
ernment that  the  welfare  of  society  should  not  cost  the 
individual  any  more  in  the  way  of  pain  or  inhibition  or 
repression  than  is  absolutely  necessary.  The  same  prin- 
ciple appHes  with  equal  force  to  the  government  of  the 
school.  The  welfare  of  the  mass  is  a  consideration  against 
which  the  claims  of  no  single  individual  can  have  pre- 
ponderant weight.  The  individual  must,  if  necessary,  be 
sacrificed  to  the  mass ;  but  this  sacrifice  must  not  be  made 
unless  the  necessity  is  clear,  nor  in  any  greater  degree  than 
the  necessity  demands. 

2.  What  is  to  be  understood  by  a  well-ordered  class- 
room?    Nothing  more  nor  less  than  this:  a  room  from 

105 


I06  CLASSROOM    MANAGEMENT 

which  all  unnecessary  distractions  due  to  lack  of  control  on 
the  part  of  individual  pupils  have  been  eradicated.  The 
concentration  of  attention  on  the  part  of  individual  pupils 
is  best  accompHshed  under  conditions  that  are  free  (i)  from 
intermittent  sound  stimuU;  (2)  from  olfactory  stimuli, 
either  pleasant  or  unpleasant;  (3)  from  visual  stimuU 
caused  by  erratic  and  intermittent  movements.  The 
necessity  of  some  form  of  government  or  discipline  arises 
from  the  fact  that  especially  the  first  and  last  of  these 
distracting  influences  are  very  easily  occasioned  by  lack 
of  inhibition  on  the  part  of  individual  pupils. 

The  point  that  needs  emphasis  is  this :  inhibition  is  an 
acquired  art,  not  a  primitive  instinct.  The  instincts  are 
all,  practically,  in  the  direction  of  movement;  repression 
of  the  impulse  to  move  must  be  learned  through  experi- 
ence. The  basic  principle  that  underHes  this  develop- 
ment is  best  expressed  in  the  "pleasure-pain"  hypothesis; 
whenever  an  instinctive  movement  results  in  pain,  it  tends 
thereafter  to  be  repressed ;  whenever  it  results  in  pleasure, 
it  tends  thereafter  to  be  repeated. 

3.  Spencefs  Doctrine  of  Natural  Punishments.  This 
fundamental  biological  principle  lies  at  the  basis  of  the 
most  thoroughgoing  theory  of  discipline  that  has  yet  been 
elaborated  —  Herbert  Spencer's  doctrine  of  "natural  pun- 
ishments." ^  It  will  be  necessary  at  this  point  to  consider 
this  theory  in  some  detail,  not  only  because  it  is,  Hke 
everything  that  this  great  master  brought  forth,  thoroughly 

*  H.  Spencer:  Education,  New  York,  1895  (Appleton's  edition),  pp. 
161  ff. 


PENALTIES  107 

worth  serious  study,  but  also  because  it  has  had  a  pro- 
found effect  upon  educational  practice. 

Spencer  argues  from  the  biological  postulate  that  the 
function  of  pain  is  to  act  as  a  deterrent  with  reference  to 
experiences  that  are  injurious  to  the  organism.  Harmful 
adjustments,  he  assumes,  always  issue  in  pain;  beneficial 
adjustments  in  pleasure.  In  moral  conduct,  this  biological 
principle  becomes  the  criterion  for  "right"  and  "wrong": 
"That  conduct  whose  total  moral  results,  immediate  and 
remote,  are  beneficial,  is  good  conduct;  while  conduct 
whose  total  results,  immediate  and  remote,  are  injurious,  is 
bad  conduct."  ^  Thus  the  happiness  or  the  misery  that 
results  as  the  inevitable  consequence  of  any  act  becomes  the 
reward  or  the  punishment  of  that  act.  To  subject  a  child 
to  a  "natural"  punishment,  therefore,  is  simply  to  stand 
out  of  the  way  and  let  him  reap  the  natural  consequences 
of  his  act. 

Spencer  maintains  that  a  natural  punishment  has  the 
following  advantages  over  an  artificial  punishment:  (i)  It 
is  unavoidable  and  inevitable.^  (2)  It  is  proportionate  to 
the  degree  of  offense  —  "to  the  degree  in  which  the  organic 
laws  have  been  transgressed."  "A  slight  accident  brings 
a  sHght  pain,  a  more  serious  one,  a  greater  pain."  (3)  It 
is  "constant,  direct,  unhesitating,  and  not  to  be  escaped." 
"No  threats,  but  a  silent,  rigorous  performance.  If  the 
child  runs  a  pin  into  its  finger,  pain  follows.  If  it  does  it 
again,  there  is  again  the  same  result,  and  so  on  perpetually. 

*  Spencer,  op.  cit.,  p.  173. 

'  Ibid.,  p.  175.     (All  following  citations  are  from  the  same  section.) 


Io8  CLASSROOM    MANAGEMENT 

In  all  its  dealings  with  surrounding  inorganic  nature  it 
finds  this  unswerving  persistence,  which  listens  to  no 
excuse,  and  from  which  there  is  no  appeal ;  and  very  soon 
recognizing  this  stem  though  beneficent  discipline  it 
becomes  extremely  careful  not  to  transgress."  (4)  Natural 
punishments  "hold  throughout  hfe."  "It  is  by  the 
experimentally  gained  knowledge  of  the  natural  conse- 
quences that  men  and  women  are  checked  when  they  go 
wrong." 

It  will  be  readily  seen  that  on  the  surface  this  theory 
has  much  to  commend  it  to  the  educational  practitioner. 
If  a  pupil  fails  through  idleness  to  prepare  his  tasks  during 
school  hours,  he  is  "kept  in"  after  school  to  make  up  his 
deficiencies.  If  he  is  unduly  disorderly  at  recess  time,  he  is 
deprived  of  his  recess.  If  he  abuses  the  privileges  of  the 
school,  he  is  suspended  or  expelled.  All  these  punish- 
ments Spencer  would  term  "natural" ;  although,  in  a  strict 
interpretation  of  his  theory,  the  natural  consequences  of 
failure  to  perform  the  tasks  required  by  education  would 
be  the  evils  attending  lack  of  knowledge  and  training,  and 
this  punishment  would  not,  of  course,  come  to  its  full  frui- 
tion short  of  the  maturity  of  the  pupil.  This  is  the  weak 
point  in  the  practical  application  of  Spencer's  theory ;  his 
illustrations  do  not  always  illustrate  the  point  that  he  is 
trying  to  make.  Taking  them  at  their  face  value,  how- 
ever, it  will  be  noted  that  the  punishments  instanced, 
whether  natural  or  artificial,  are  among  those  most  gener- 
ally condemned  by  experienced  teachers.  "Keeping  in" 
after  school,  depriving  a  pupil  of  recesses,  and  suspension 


PENALTIES  109 

and  expulsion,  are  all  looked  upon  as  akin  to  bad  prac- 
tice. And  primarily  for  a  very  simple  reason  —  namely, 
that  they  are  generally  ineffective. 

4.  The  difficulty  with  Spencer's  theory  is  not,  however, 
confined  to  the  inapt  illustrations  that  he  uses.  His 
fundamental  hypothesis  in  so  far  as  it  pertains  to  human 
action  is  inadequate,  as  will  appear  from  the  following 
analysis :  — 

(a)  The  natural  consequences  of  an  act  are  frequently 
too  far  removed  both  in  time  and  in  space  from  the  act 
itself  to  permit  in  the  agent's  mind  that  firm  association 
which  is  essential  if  the  pain  is  to  become  a  deterrent. 
Especially  is  this  true  with  immature  children,  whose  span 
of  attention  is  narrow,  and  who  cannot  think  back  from 
painful  consequences  through  a  multitude  of  intermediate 
experiences  to  the  act  that  gave  rise  to  the  consequences. 
Adults  not  infrequently  fail  to  make  the  connection  between 
effect  and  cause  unless  the  one  follows  directly  upon  the 
other;  the  ignorant  and  superstitious  will  invariably 
ascribe  pains  and  penalties  to  bad  luck,  supernatural  forces, 
insidious  enemies,  fate  —  anything  rather  than  their  own 
misdeeds  or  lack  of  foresight.  The  doctrine  of  natural 
punishments  becomes,  therefore,  impracticable  in  all 
cases  where  the  consequences  are  separated  from  the  act 
by  a  long  period  of  time. 

(b)  Again  the  painful  consequences  of  a  given  act  may 
be  inflicted,  not  upon  the  agent,  but  upon  others,  perhaps 
in  the  distant  future  long  after  the  agent  himself  has  gone 
to  his  reward.    How  such  a  condition  can  be  a  deter- 


no  CLASSROOM    MANAGJisLd:iNT 

ring  factor  in  the  adjustment  of  the  agent  is  hard  to 
see. 

(c)  It  is  not  clear  that  natural  punishments  are  always 
"proportionate  to  the  degree  in  which  the  organic  laws 
have  been  transgressed."  "Nature"  does  not  make 
distinctions  so  fine  as  this.  It  works  by  the  law  of  aver- 
ages, and  if,  in  the  long  rww,  an  action  is  injurious,  it  is 
rendered,  through  the  slow  process  of  natural  selection, 
either  painful  or  fatal.  But  so  long  as  the  race  as  a 
whole  is  perpetuated,  nature  (speaking  metaphorically, 
of  course)  is  satisfied.  Natural  selection  is  crude  in  its 
operations.  Whatever  it  permits  to  survive  is  not,  for 
that  reason  alone,  perfect.  It  is  useful  only,  perhaps,  in 
the  bare  majority  of  cases ;  in  a  large  minority  of  cases,  it 
may,  indeed,  be  fatal. 

(d)  Nor  is  the  brute  instinct  of  pleasure  and  pain  a  valid 
and  indisputable  guide  to  conduct  under  the  conditions  of 
social  lije.  The  main  reason,  biologically,  for  the  exist- 
ence of  mind  and  intellect  is  the  very  inadequacy  of  in- 
stinct. As  man  comes  more  and  more  under  the  control 
of  civiHzed  conditions,  many  of  the  things  that  once  meant 
danger  to  the  organism  no  longer  mean  danger,  although 
they  still  have  the  primitive  mark  of  danger  attached  to 
them  —  they  still  cause  pain.  On  the  other  hand,  some 
of  the  things  that  were  once  good  for  the  organism  Hving 
under  primitive  conditions  are  no  longer  good  for  the 
organism  living  under  social  conditions;  but  they  still 
have  the  primitive  sign  of  the  beneficial  attached  to  them 
—  they  are  still  "pleasant."    Through  experience,  man 


PENALTIES  III 

comes  to  learn  this.  In  other  words,  he  comes  to  under- 
stand that  present  pains  and  discomforts  may  be  essential 
to  the  full  fruition  of  a  desired  end.  The  abihty  to  make 
this  judgment  is  the  distinctive  feature  of  human  intelli- 
gence as  opposed  to  brute  instinct. 

5.  Nevertheless,  Spencer's  theory  may  be  held  as  basic 
in  this  regard :  the  first  steps  in  self-control  are  taken  at 
the  behest  of  immediate  consequences,  be  these  either 
pleasant  or  painful.  Until  mind  can  look  into  the  future 
and  govern  adjustment  with  reference  to  remote  ends,  the 
primitive  pleasure-pain  economy  will  and  must  be  the 
only  guide.  Civilization  imposes  requirements  the  true 
value  of  which  cannot  be  comprehended  in  the  narrow 
span  of  the  primitive  mind.  To  wait  until  natural  con- 
sequences shall  correct  misdemeanors  is  impossible  under 
these  conditions.  In  fact,  some  misdemeanors  may,  if 
left  to  themselves,  bring  pleasant  immediate  consequences 
that  will  greatly  multiply  the  chances  that  similar  misdeeds 
will  follow.  Obviously  the  only  recourse  is  to  introduce 
artificial  punishments  that  will  associate  so  vividly  with 
the  misdeeds  as  to  prevent  the  recurrence  of  the  latter. 
It  is  the  duty  of  adult  inteUigence  to  do  this.  The  very 
essence  of  the  helplessness  and  dependence  of  infancy  and 
immaturity  is  to  insure  the  government  of  the  child's 
action  more  or  less  completely  through  adult  precept  and 
direction. 

6.  In  individual  instruction,  where  the  needs  of  but  one 
person  require  consideration,  the  practice  of  having  all 
delinquencies  made  up  in  kind  (keeping  after  hours  for 


112  CLASSROOM    MANAGEMENT 

idleness,  depriving  the  pupil  of  a  privilege  in  case  of  its 
abuse,  etc.)  may  be  effective.  This,  however,  as  has 
been  indicated  above,  is  not  true  of  class  management. 
In  deaUng  with  children  in  masses,  disciplinary  measures 
are  undertaken  primarily  to  promote  the  welfare  of  the 
whole.  Whatever  penalties  are  inflicted,  therefore,  must 
be  measured  by  this  standard.  The  individual  must  not 
be  forgotten,  but  the  welfare  of  no  single  individual  can, 
in  equity,  be  counted  against  the  welfare  of  the  class. 
Where  the  so-called  natural  punishments  (keeping  after 
school,  etc.)  are  employed  in  class  management,  they  often 
fail  to  have  a  deterring  effect  upon  other  pupils,  and  they 
fail  very  frequently  to  reach  the  offender  himself.  The 
distraction  that  the  offense  brought  about  is  repeated 
again  and  again,  so  long  as  the  pleasant  consequences  of 
the  offense  overbalance  the  unpleasant  consequences  — 
and  one  needs  only  to  refer  to  one's  own  school  days  to 
recall  that  being  "kept  after  school,"  or  losing  a  recess, 
was  a  very  light  penalty  to  pay  for  certain  forbidden 
pleasures.  In  short,  the  end  of  discipline  in  such  cases  is 
not  gained.  The  body  of  the  class  suffers  from  the  mis- 
demeanors of  the  individual,  and  the  penalty  fails  to  bring 
justice  to  the  majority. 

7.  This  guiding  principle  indicates  that  individual  mis- 
deeds which  prevent  the  economical  operation  of  classroom 
influences  for  the  welfare  of  the  majority  of  the  pupils 
must  be  eliminated  at  any  cost.  Any  measure  which  will 
effect  this  end  with  the  least  possible  injury  to  the  penahzed 
pupil  must  be  looked  upon  as  legitimate.    The  great  and 


PENALTIES  113 

vital  question  is  this :  Is  the  measure  effective  in  fulfilling 
the  aim  of  discipline  —  namely,  the  preservation  of  those 
conditions  that  are  essential  to  the  welfare  of  the  majority  ? 
Once  this  question  is  answered,  a  second  question  may  be 
raised:  What  effect  does  this  measure  have  upon  the 
penalized  pupil,  and  could  equal  efficiency  be  secured  by 
a  measure  involving  less  injury?  In  short,  the  whole 
process  is  one  of  compromise. 

This  does  not  argue  for  a  return  to  the  blind,  rule-of-the-rod 
discipline  of  the  early  schools.  The  old-time  policy  defeated 
its  own  purposes  just  as  thoroughly,  just  as  completely,  as  does 
its  ultra-modern  antithesis.  But  the  tendency  of  civilization 
in  corrective  measures  is  toward  leniency  only  in  so  far  as  lenient 
measures  are  more  effective  than  harsh  measures.  Intelligent 
leniency  is  often  the  high-water  mark  of  moral  strength ;  blind 
and  emotional  leniency  is  just  as  frequently  to  be  identified  with 
moral  weakness.  And  this  is  quite  as  true  of  the  justice's 
court  as  it  is  of  the  classroom.  The  community  that  is  cursed 
with  hoodlumism  usually  supports  a  ''weak-kneed  "  administra- 
tor of  the  law,  and  the  school  that  is  cursed  with  constant  and 
unrelieved  disorder  is  commonly  presided  over  by  a  weak- 
kneed  principal.  The  combination  of  a  soft  heart  and  a  soft 
head  is  fatal  to  efficiency  in  either  office. 

8.  The  Fundamental  Principles.  From  the  preceding 
discussion  it  is  clear  that  the  efficiency  of  a  penalty 
in  securing  the  repression  of  undesirable  activities  will 
depend  upon  three  factors:  (i)  the  degree  of  pain, 
discomfort,  or  disagreeableness  which  the  penalty  in- 
volves; a  penalty  from  which  the  "sting"  has  been 
carefully  extracted  has  lost  thereby  its  chief  virtue  as  a 


114  CLASSROOM    MANAGEMENT 

penalty ;  (2)  the  closeness  with  which  it  is  associated  with 
the  undesirable  impulse;  a  penalty  that  is  not  associated 
explicitly  and  directly  with  an  undesirable  act  may,  by 
chance,  become  associated  with  a  desirable  response :  thus 
if  the  pain  of  chastisement,  for  example,  is  associated  with 
school  life  in  general  instead  of  with  some  forbidden  ac- 
tivity, school  will  become  distasteful  and  will  be  avoided 
whenever  possible;  (3)  its  freedom  from  painful  conse- 
quences in  excess  of  those  needed  to  inhibit  the  undesirable 
impulse ;  a  penalty  that  is  not  sufficiently  severe  is  unjust 
to  the  mass;  a  penalty  which  is  unnecessarily  severe  is 
unjust  to  the  individual ;  a  penalty  which  is  effective  in  a 
given  instance  and  yet  which  lingers  and  rankles  in  the 
pupil's  mind  may,  in  the  last  analysis,  work  more  injury 
than  good. 

9.  Corporal  Punishment  as  a  Penalty.  From  the  stand- 
point of  theory,  corporal  punishment  probably  best  fulfills 
the  conditions  named  above  as  a  penalty  for  appUcation 
in  the  elementary  school,  (i)  In  the  first  place,  the  "  sting" 
is  generally  present  and,  except  under  abnormal  conditions, 
disagreeable  enough  to  deter  the  offender  from  a  repetition 
of  the  act.  (2)  Corporal  punishment  can  be  inflicted  in 
close  sequence  upon  the  forbidden  act  and  so  insure  the 
association  that  is  so  essential.  (3)  Corporal  punish- 
ment does  not,  as  a  rule,  leave  a  pain  that  persists  and 
rankles,  as  do  some  other  forms  of  punishment  usually 
looked  upon  as  more  humane;    for  example,  "scoldings." 

On  the  other  hand,  corporal  punishment  sometimes  fails 
of  these  virtues,     (i)  Some  pupils  probably  become  hard- 


PENALTIES  115 

cned  to  chastisement,  and  thus  the  penalty  comes  effectually 
to  lose  its  "sting";  again,  abnormal  individuals  maybe 
quite  anaesthetic  —  practically  insensitive  to  pain  stimuH ; 
again,  the  fact  of  corporal  punishment  may  be  given  a  high 
value  among  pupils  as  a  hero-making  process;  conse- 
quently the  pleasure  of  adulation  will  overtop  the  physical 
pain  of  chastisement,  and  thus  the  *' sting"  will,  in  effect, 
be  eliminated.  (2)  Corporal  punishment  may  be  so  long 
delayed  as  not  to  be  associated  with  the  forbidden  act ;  it 
may  be  administered  so  frequently  that  the  association 
is  lost  to  view;  even  if  administered  in  close  sequence  to 
the  act,  the  association  may  not  be  definitely  forced  home 
by  the  teacher.  (3)  Corporal  punishment  may  have 
injurious  after-effects  that  are  out  of  proportion  to  the 
seriousness  of  the  penalized  offense;  for  example,  if  the 
pupil  thinks  himself  to  be  punished  unjustly,  the  physical 
pain  may  be  replaced  by  a  mental  pain  that  lingers  and 
rankles. 

10.  If  corporal  punishment  is  applied,  therefore,  it  must 
always  be  with  a  distinct  recognition  of  its  limitations  and 
dangers.  The  points  noted  above  may  be  embodied  in 
three  sets  of  rules  or  cautions :  (i)  Do  not  employ  corporal 
punishment  if  its  sting  has  been  extracted,  either  actu- 
ally or  effectually.  Do  not  apply  corporal  punishment  to 
"hardened"  cases;  these  can  generally  be  more  effectively 
influenced  by  some  other  means.  If  youthful  recalcitrants 
court  corporal  punishment  because  it  gives  them  prestige 
with  their  fellow-pupils,  either  increase  the  intensity  of  the 
stimulus  so  that  it  will  overtop  the  pleasure  of  adulation, 


Il6  CLASSROOM    MANAGEMENT 

or,  in  case  this  is  impracticable,  resort  to  expulsion  or  sus- 
pension; it  may  be  assumed,  however,  that  the  latter 
measure  will  be  needed  only  in  very  exceptional  cases; 
at  any  rate,  it  is  well  to  keep  on  with  the  punishment  until 
there  is  no  doubt  of  its  inefficacy. 

(2)  The  application  of  corporal  punishment  should 
become  less  and  less  frequent  as  the  teacher's  authority 
becomes  more  and  more  adequately  recognized.  Where  it 
is  necessary  to  use  the  rod  day  after  day  and  year  after 
year  on  the  same  pupils,  a  possible  agency  for  good  has 
been  transformed  into  an  unquestioned  agency  for  evil. 
It  is  treatment  like  this  that  hardens  boys  into  fit  recruits 
for  the  criminal  classes.  Nevertheless  this  should  not  be 
interpreted  to  mean  that  a  recalcitrant  should  be  chastised 
once  and  once  only.  The  first  application  is  sometimes 
looked  upon  by  the  pupil  only  as  a  test.  He  may  accept 
it  graciously  and  still  persist  in  the  undesired  act.  It  may 
take  several  appHcations  firmly  to  associate  the  act  with 
an  unpleasant  consequence.  But  in  course  of  time  the 
pupil  will  come  to  understand  that  the  teacher  must  be 
obeyed.  This  conviction  may  later  be  transformed  into 
a  "tradition"  that  is  effective  with  succeeding  classes. 
The  writer  knows  of  several  cases  where  a  teacher  or  a 
principal  entering  a  new  school  has  estabhshed  his  authority 
at  the  outset  by  means  of  severe  disciplinary  measures, 
and  where  such  measures  have  become  so  essential  a  part 
of  the  traditions  of  his  room  or  his  school  that  the  neces- 
sity for  their  repetition  has  never  arisen  after  the  first  year 
of  service.    The  pupils  are  certain  in  their  own  minds  that 


PENALTIES  117 

unpleasant  consequences  will  follow  an  infraction  of  the 
rules,  and  the  tradition  of  these  consequences  (perhaps 
even  magnified  in  the  course  of  time)  comes  to  operate, 
vicariously  as  it  were,  for  the  actual  penalties. 

(3)  If  corporal  punishment  is  applied,  the  teacher 
should  always  be  certain  that  the  pupil  either  recognizes 
its  justice  or  will  come  to  recognize  its  justice.  The  best 
guide  in  this  matter  is  for  the  teacher  to  be  certain  that 
the  penalty  is  just.  Whenever  misdemeanors  occur,  the 
responsibility  for  which  cannot  be  accurately  placed,  it  is 
unwise  to  administer  corporal  punishment  to  any  pupil 
or  pupils  on  the  mere  chance  that  he  or  they  may  be  guilty. 
In  short,  circumstantial  evidence  should  never  justify 
corporal  punishment.  It  is  the  writer's  experience  that 
this  is  the  only  safe  policy,  although  now  and  then  a  guilty 
pupil  may  escape  the  penalty.  If  the  pupils  gain  the 
idea  that  the  teacher  is  absolutely  just  and  fair,  the 
chances  are  that  imidentifiable  guilt  will  be  reduced  to  a 
minimum. 

11.  Summary.  Corporal  punishment  is  at  best  only  a 
tentative  measure,  designed  to  teach  the  child  the  initial 
lessons  of  decency  and  order.  It  is  an  extremely  effective 
agency  for  fulfiUing  this  function  if  it  is  used  temperately 
and  with  good  sense.  Its  possibiHties  of  evil  are  incal- 
culable if  it  is  used  in  any  other  way. 

12.  The  Reaction  against  Corporal  Punishment.  So 
many  evils  have  sprung  from  the  abuse  of  the  rod  in  the 
past  that  the  prevailing  tendency  of  the  present  time  is  to 
aboUsh  it  entirely  from  the  educative  process.    This  is 


Il8  CLASSROOM    MANAGEMENT 

an  extreme  reaction,  and  the  pendulum  will  doubtless  soon 
come  to  swing  back  toward  a  position  of  equilibrium,  as 
it  does  in  the  case  of  all  extreme  movements  in  education. 
Nevertheless,  the  reaction  is  at  present  so  pronounced  that 
one  who  dehberately  recommends  corporal  punishment  as 
a  school  penalty  cannot  overlook  the  arguments  against 
it.    These  may  be  briefly  summarized  as  follows :  — 

(a)  The  progress  of  the  race  is  away  from  the  brutal  and 
toward  the  human  —  conjecturaliy,  at  least,  toward  that 
highest  ideal  of  humanity  that  is  termed  ''divine."  Corporal 
punishment  appeals  to  the  brute  instincts,  consequently  it  is 
inconsistent  with  the  general  trend  of  progress.  It  is  largely 
for  this  reason  that  it  has  been  abolished  as  a  civil  penalty. 

This  argument  overlooks  a  very  important  fact.  Although 
the  progress  of  the  race  is  away  from  the  brute,  the  individual 
who  is  born  into  the  world  is,  biologically,  no  farther  away 
from  the  brute  than  was  the  infant  who  was  born  at  the  very 
dawn  of  human  progress.  That  is,  everything  that  makes  man 
human  is  a  product  not  of  heredity  but  of  culture  and  training 
—  education  in  the  broadest  sense  of  the  term.  No  matter 
how  far  civilization  may  develop,  civilized  society  must  always 
take  the  child  at  the  brute  level  and  raise  him  to  the  social 
level.  Human  progress  is  extremely  rapid;  but  biological 
progress  —  and  this  is  the  only  kind  that  will  have  any  effect 
upon  heredity  —  is  extremely  slow.  This  is  one  of  the  most 
profound  truths  that  modern  science  has  revealed,  and 
it  is  a  truth  that  the  great  mass  of  mankind,  who  have  no 
knowledge  of  biology,  find  it  hard  indeed  to  appreciate.  Every- 
thing else  is  advancing,  they  say;  why  should  the  principles 
of  early  education  remain  stationary?  And  yet  they  must 
remain  practically  stationary  so  long  as  the  race  remains  what 
it  is  physically.    There  is  as  yet  no  evidence  that  the  culture 


PENALTIES  119 

and  virtue  accumulated  by  each  generation  are  transmitted 
to  its  offspring  through  the  forces  of  heredity. 

That  corporal  punishment  has  been  abolished  as  a  civil 
penalty  does  not  necessarily  argue  its  inadequacy  as  a  school 
penalty.  The  criminal  may  be  so  hardened  to  pain  —  or  so 
abnormally  anaesthetic  —  that  blows  would  have  no  effect 
upon  him.  But  even  beyond  this,  the  cases  are  entirely  differ- 
ent. In  the  one  case,  we  are  dealing  with  a  child  who  has  no 
experience  to  draw  upon,  who  cannot  project  himself  into  the 
future  and  see  the  remote  consequences  of  his  acts.  In  the 
other  case,  we  are  dealing  with  an  adult  who,  presumably,  has 
reached  the  age  of  reason. 

(b)  Corporal  punishment  antagonizes  the  child,  placing  him 
in  an  attitude  of  habitual  opposition  to  authority. 

This  is  true  in  a  very  small  proportion  of  cases,  and  these  are 
probably,  in  the  main,  cases  that  represent  an  abuse  of  the 
measure.  If  all  corporal  punishment  had  this  disastrous  effect, 
ninety-nine  per  cent  of  the  men  and  women  of  to-day  would 
be  enrolled  among  the  anarchists.  (The  figure,  of  course, 
is  only  conjectural,  but  it  would  be  surprising  if  more  than 
one  per  cent  of  the  adult  population  of  the  land  failed  to  taste 
either  the  slipper,  the  shingle,  or  the  birch  during  their  child- 
hood.) 

(c)  Corporal  punishment  leads  the  child  to  hate  and  despise 
the  parents  and  teachers  who  inflict  it. 

And  yet  adults  not  infrequently  have  the  greatest  respect  and 
love  for  the  parents  and  the  teachers  who  corrected  them  in 
their  youth.  Children  will  resent  an  unjust  punishment,  and 
this  resentment  will  probably  linger  for  a  long  time  —  even 
into  adulthood.  This  is  not  a  reason,  however,  for  abandoning 
the  rod  of  correction.  It  is  rather  an  indication  of  the  care 
that  must  be  exercised  in  not  permitting  a  child  to  be  punished 
unjustly.  He  may  not  always  see  the  justice  of  his  chastise- 
ment, but  the  likelihood  is  that  he  will  see  it  later  if  justice  ha« 


120  CLASSROOM    MANAGEMENT 

really  been  done  him.     It  is  in  cases  of  flagrant  injustice  that 
resentment  brings  evil  results. 

(d)  It  is  cowardly  for  an  adult  to  "take  a  stick  and  attack  a 
defenseless  child." 

This  is  hardly  deserving  of  a  place  among  serious  arguments. 
In  the  first  place,  it  is  decidedly  distasteful  for  the  great  major- 
ity of  men  and  women  to  administer  corporal  punishment.  In 
the  average  of  cases,  one  may  safely  assume  that  it  takes  cour- 
age rather  than  cowardice  to  resort  to  this  measure.  In  the 
second  place,  the  indictment  would  easily  cover  all  cases  where 
authority  is  armed  with  the  power  of  execution.  If  it  is  cowardly 
for  the  teacher  to  wield  the  rod,  it  is  cowardly  for  the  policeman 
to  carry  a  "billy,"  for  the  judge  to  pass  sentence  on  a  prisoner 
(surely  the  prisoner  is  defenseless  in  the  same  sense  that  the 
child  is),  and  for  the  jail  warden  to  keep  his  keys  in  his  own 
possession  instead  of  distributing  them  among  his  prisoners, 
in  order  that  they  may  have  an  "equal  chance." 

(e)  Corporal  punishment  and  other  harsh  measures  of  dis- 
cipline tend  to  discourage  pupils  with  school  life  and  lead  them 
to  take  the  first  opportunity  to  seek  remunerative  employment. 

This  is  the  most  serious  indictment  against  every  measure 
that  tends  to  make  school  work  in  any  way  irksome.  Exami- 
nations have  been  condemned  for  the  same  reason;  also  the 
formal  drills  that  are  necessary  to  lay  the  automatic  foundations 
of  life.  School  work  must  be  made  pleasant,  interesting,  agree- 
able, otherwise  education  will  fail  to  reach  the  individuals  who 
need  it  the  most.^ 

*  It  would  be  difl5cult  to  conjecture  the  practical  results  of  this  argu- 
ment. In  every  school  system  there  is  a  desire  on  the  part  of  the  authori- 
ties to  "show  numbers."  The  man  who  can  build  up  a  large  school  is 
the  successful  man  in  education.  How  he  attracts  his  pupils  is  a  matter 
of  little  importance  as  long  as  he  gets  them.  The  motive  may  not  be 
consciously  formulated,  but  it  is  frequently  present,  whether  one  is  con- 
scious of  it  or  not.     A^ain  there  are  well-meaning  but  shortsighted  indi- 


PENALTIES  121 

This  argument  has  little  force  against  a  temperate  use  of 
corporal  punishment  in  the  elementary  school.  The  great 
majority  of  pupils  on  whom  corporal  punishment  is  inflicted 
remain  in  school,  and  it  would  be  hard  to  prove  that  those  who 
leave  do  so  for  the  reason  ascribed.  Beyond  this,  nearly  every 
state  has  a  compulsory  education  law  that  operates  in  the  ele- 
mentary school.  Under  an  effective  enforcement  of  such  a 
law  the  condition  mentioned  could  not,  of  course,  exist. 

(/)  Corporal  punishment  tends  to  brutalize  the  individual 
who  inflicts  it. 

This  is  an  argument  of  some  force,  suggesting  a  condition 
that  may  easily  come  to  operate.  That  corporal  punishment 
necessarily  brutalizes  is  certainly  disproved  by  innumerable 
cases  of  schoolmen  (and  schoolwomen)  who  have  employed  the 
measure  and  are  still  within  the  pale  of  humanity.  But  the 
danger  is  one  to  be  borne  in  mind  and  counteracted  in  all  pos- 
sible ways.  It  is  quite  analogous  to  the  danger  that  confronts 
all  who  deal  largely  with  immature  minds,  —  the  tendency, 
namely,  to  become  dogmatic  and  unyielding  through  too  wide 
an  exercise  of  autocratic  authority. 

viduals  who  believe  that  the  privileges  of  the  school  should  be  extended 
as  widely  as  possible,  but  who  fail  to  discriminate  between  a  large  attend- 
ance and  effective  work.  Certainly  if  good  work  can  be  accomplished 
without  drill,  examinations,  or  the  imposing  of  penalties  for  disorder,  let 
us  abolish  all  these  things.  No  one  would  perpetuate  a  disagreeable 
thing  if  its  function  could  be  fulfilled  in  any  other  way.  To  "let  down 
the  bars"  is  imperative  unless  there  is  good  and  valid  reason  for  keeping 
them  up.  Is  there  this  reason?  Ask  a  high  school  principal  whose 
pupils  have  been  "kindergartened"  up  through  the  grades  what  he  thinks 
of  eliminating  the  drills  in  the  elementary  school,  —  or  ask  a  business  man 
whose  apprentices  have  come  from  a  high  school  where  "  soft "  pedagogy  has 
prevailed.  The  progress  of  a  class  is  always  measured  by  the  ability  of 
its  slowest  members,  and  it  makes  little  difference  in  the  end  whether 
these  slow  members  are  naturally  stupid  or  whether  they  are  simply 
indolent  from  want  of  a  proper  incentive  for  effort. 


122  CLASSROOM    MANAGEMENT 

(g)  Corporal  punishment  is  ineffective  in  securing  the  ends 
which  it  seeks.  To  quote  a  contemporary  authority:  ''The 
rod  never  did  produce  good  results  in  any  case,  unless  there 
was  character  in  the  teacher  who  used  it.  This  character  in 
the  teacher  properly  used  would  have  produced  better  results 
in  every  case  without  the  rod.  Every  experienced  superin- 
tendent knows  many  cases  in  which  men  and  women  who  used 
corporal  punishment  have  ignominiously  failed,  and  whose 
classes  have  been  restored  to  good  order  and  kindled  to  a  spirit 
of  enthusiasm  for  working  by  a  little  woman  who  did  not  practice 
coercion  in  any  form."  ^ 

The  supposititious  cases  cited  could,  of  course,  be  easily  offset 
by  innumerable  instances  in  which  a  teacher  who  failed  through 
lack  of  firmness  in  asserting  his  authority  has  been  succeeded 
by  another  teacher  who  has  brought  a  decadent  school  *'up 
with  a  sharp  turn  "  by  a  judicious  use  of  the  rod.^  For  every 
superintendent  who  could  adduce  one  instance  of  the  former  sort 
there  are  doubtless  ten  who  could  bring  up  as  many  instances 
of  the  latter  variety.  Until  an  accurate  investigation  is  made 
upon  the  matter,  one  statement  is  precisely  as  good  as  another. 
For  example,  take  the  following  testimony  by  the  principal  of 
a  large  grammar  school  in  Buffalo :  "  While  I  believe  that  the 
time  of  frequent  use  of  the  rod  of  punishment  as  a  warning  to 
others  has  passed,  I  firmly  believe  that,  notwithstanding  the 
great  progress  made  in  the  management  of  our  educational 
affairs,  there  has  not  yet  been  found  an  adequate  substitute  for 
a  good  strap  to  bring  a  real  bad  boy  to  his  senses."  ^ 

13.  Practically  all  authorities  upon  school  management 
admit  the  efficiency  of  corporal  punishment,  but  would 

*  J.  L.  Hughes,  in  Journal  of  Edtication  (Boston),  vol.  Ixiii,  pp.  485  f. 

*  Cf .  the  case  cited  by  White :  School  Management,  pp.  208  f . 

'  J.  L.  Bothwell:  "How  to  dispose  of  the  Incorrigible  Boy,"  in  Pro- 
ceedings  of  the  New  York  State  Teacher^  Association^  1905,  p.  104. 


PENALTIES  1 23 

restrict  its  application  to  a  very  narrow  sphere.  White* 
recommends  its  use  only  in  cases  of  rebeUion,  meaning 
by  that  term  a  positive  refusal  on  the  part  of  the  child  to 
accede  to  the  request  of  the  teacher.  Button*  admits 
that  "theoretically  there  are  extreme  cases  where  it  (cor- 
poral punishment)  is  needed  for  the  good  of  the  offender," 
but  he  implies  that  teachers  cannot  be  generally  trusted 
to  use  the  measure  temperately  and  effectively,  and  that 
the  school  boards  that  have  abolished  it  "have  chosen  the 
lesser  of  two  evils."  Roark  ^  agrees  that  corporal  punish- 
ment should  be  used  but  rarely,  but  insists  that  "no  teacher 
can  afford  to  let  it  be  understood  that  whipping  is  abol- 
ished." Kellogg*  indorses  "bodily  chastisement"  as  a 
last  resort.  Tompkins®  believes  it  to  be  justified  with 
pupils  "whose  integument  is  the  only  avenue  to  the  main- 
spring of  conduct."  Seeley**  also  indorses  a  temperate 
use  of  the  rod  as  far  preferable  to  many  other  penalties 
commonly  employed.  Baldwin  ^  summarizes  his  discus- 
sion of  corporal  punishment  in  the  maxim,  "Grant  the 
right,  but  avoid  the  use."  Landon's  position  *  is  equally 
explicit :  "  Moral  offenses  of  a  grave  character,  deliberate 
and  continued  neglect  of  admonition  or  rebeUion,  may  be 

*  E.  E.  White :  School  Management,  New  York,  1893,  pp.  207  f. 
2  S.  T.  Button :  School  Management,  New  York,  1904,  p.  104. 
'  R.  N.  Roark:  Economy  in  Education,  New  York,  1905,  p.  45. 

*  A.  M.  Kellogg:  School  Management,  New  York,  1884,  p.  69. 

*  Arnold  Tompkins :  Philosophy  of  School  Management,  Boston,  1898, 

P-  173- 

*  L.  Seeley :  A  New  School  Management,  New  York,  1903,  pp.  97  ff. 
'  J.  Baldwin:  Art  of  School  Management,  New  York,  1887,  p.  176. 

*  J.  Landon :  School  Management,  Boston,  1884,  pp.  352  f . 


124  CLASSROOM    MANAGEMENT 

justly  treated  by  corporal  punishment;  and  it  is  some- 
times necessary  to  give  a  physical  check  of  this  kind,  as 
a  counterpoise  to  wrong  propensities  or  long-established 
habits,  as  a  means  of  arousing  the  pupil  from  that  dreamy 
irresolution  which  is  frequently  the  greatest  obstacle  to 
reformation."  The  last-named  authority  also  has  this  to 
say  with  regard  to  the  supposed  evil  efifects  of  the  prac- 
tice: "Those  persons  who  have  most  carefully  watched- 
its  effects  will  probably  concur  that,  where  used  with  skill 
and  discretion  by  a  sympathetic  teacher,  and  where  care 
is  taken  to  neutralize  its  side  tendencies  by  other  good  in- 
fluences, there  is  httle  or  no  cause  to  fear  any  evil  results. 
There  is  something  radically  wrong  besides  the  mere  use 
of  corporal  punishment  wherever  the  long  train  of  evils 
laid  to  its  charge  are  ever  realized  in  practice."  Keith  * 
indorses  corporal  punishment  as  a  last  resort,  asserting 
that  it  is  better  for  the  child  that  "  he  should  suffer  the 
pain  of  corporal  punishment  and  even  the  disgrace  of 
being  whipped  in  the  presence  of  his  peers  than  that  he 
should  persist  in  acts  of  selfishness  and  meanness." 

Conspicuous  among  the  recent  writers  upon  this  subject 
is  Dr.  J.  S.  Taylor,  assistant  superintendent  of  the  New 
York  City  schools.  Dr.  Taylor^  anathematizes  corporal 
punishment  as  a  "relic  of  barbarism,"  and  asserts  with 
ItaUcized  vehemence  that  a  principal  "who  cannot  disci- 
pline a  school  without  corporal  punishment,  could  not 

*  J.  A.  H.  Keith :  Elementary  Education,  Chicago,  1905,  p.  288. 
'  J.  S.  Taylor:  Art  of  Class  Management  and  Discipline,  New  York, 
1903,  pp.  62  fif. 


PENALTIES  125 

successfully  do  so  with  corporal  punishment/'  His  dis- 
cussion is  extremely  suggestive,  but  he  is  obviously  in  a 
decided  minority  among  authorities  upon  the  subject. 
It  should  be  said,  however,  that  he  writes  chiefly  for  the 
teachers  in  a  large  city  system,  where  the  prestige  of  a 
vast  organization  is  very  much  in  evidence,  and  where 
authority  is  backed  up  by  truant  officers  and  parental 
schools.  Nevertheless,  even  under  these  conditions,  it 
is  interesting  to  note  that  the  Male  Principals'  Association 
of  Manhattan  Borough  received  a  report  ^  from  a  represen- 
tative committee,  recommending  corporal  punishment  in 
extreme  cases,  and  basing  this  recommendation  upon 
some  very  sane  and  cogent  arguments. 

"Dr.  G.  Stanley  Hall,  in  his  article  on  'Moral  Education  and 
Will  Training,'  cites  from  Richter  the  record  of  a  Swab ian  school- 
master, named  Haberle,  as  an  example  of  the  severity  which 
once  prevailed  in  Germany  in  the  matter  of  punishment  — 
truly  a  remarkable  count  for  51  years  and  7  months  as  a  teacher : 
'911,527  blows  with  a  cane;  124,010  with  a  rod;  20,989  with 
a  ruler;  136,715  with  the  hand;  10,295  over  the  mouth; 
7905  boxes  on  the  ears;  1,115,800  snaps  on  the  head;  22,763 
fwta  benes  with  Bible,  catechism,  hymn  book,  and  grammar; 
777  times  boys  had  to  kneel  on  peas;  613  times  on  triangular 
blocks  of  wood;  5001  had  to  carry  a  timber  mare,  and  1701 
hold  the  rod  high  —  the  last  two  being  punishments  of  his  own 
invention.  Of  the  blows  with  the  cane,  800,000  were  for  Latin 
vowels,  and  76,000  of  those  with  the  rod  for  Bible  verses  and 
hymns.  He  used  a  scolding  vocabulary  of  over  3000  terms, 
of  which  one  third  were  of  his  own  invention.' 

"Against  this  punitory  maximum.  Dr.  Hall,  the  gist  of  whose 
*  These  resolutions  will  be  found  in  Taylor,  op.  cit.,  pp.  71  £F. 


126  CLASSROOM    MANAGEMENT 

article  is  'that  only  in  so  far  as  the  primitive  will  of  the  child 
is  wrong  by  nature  are  drastic  reconstructions  of  any  sort 
needed,*  ever3rthing  depending  on  how  'aboriginal  our  good- 
ness is,'  and  upon  '  that  better  purity  established  by  our  mother 
in  our  heart  before  the  superfetation  of  precept  is  possible,' 
ranges  '  the  now  too  common  habit  of  coquetting  for  the  child's 
favor,  and  tickling  its  ego  with  praises  and  prizes,  and  peda- 
gogic pettifogging  for  its  good  will,  and  sentimental  fear  of  a 
judicious  slap  to  rouse  a  spoiled  child  with  no  will  to  break,  to 
make  it  keep  step  with  the  rest  in  conduct,  instead  of  delaying 
a  whole  schoolroom  to  apply  a  subtle  psychology  of  motive.'  "  * 

14.  Regulation  of  Corporal  Punishment,  The  reaction 
against  corporal  punishment,  although  doubtless  carried 
too  far,  has  accomplished  one  very  desirable  end :  it  has 
shown  the  necessity  for  curtailing  the  practice  and  for 
regulating  it  by  sane  restrictions.  In  practically  all  schools 
corporal  punishment  is  much  less  prevalent  than  it  was 
two  decades  ago,  and,  wherever  it  is  inflicted,  it  is  almost 
universally  under  strict  prescription  by  explicit  rulings  as 
to  the  nature  of  the  offense  that  can  be  met  with  this  meas- 
ure, the  time  and  method  of  administration,  and  the  agent 
who  inflicts  it.  The  following  summary  is  given  as  repre- 
senting a  fair  consensus  of  typical  rules  in  force  in  a  num- 
ber of  city  systems. 

(a)  There  should  be  a  "standard"  method  of  inflict- 
ing corporal  punishment.  Blows  upon  the  head,  in  the 
neighborhood  of  the  spinal  column,  or  near  any  vital 
organ  should  be  rigidly  prohibited.^     Just  what  cutaneous 

*  Cited  by  A.  F.  Chamberlain :  The  Child,  London,  1900,  pp.  388  f . 
'  "  Shaking  a  child,  striking  him  upon  the  head,  slapping  his  face, 
boxing  his  ears,  and  similar  means  of  inflicting  physical  pain  are  strictly 


PENALTIES  127 

area  can  be  most  effectively  stimulated  is  a  matter  of 
differing  opinion,  as  is  also  the  particular  instrument  to  be 
used.  Many  good  teachers  advise  "spanking'*  for  young 
children,  and  there  is  much  to  recommend  this  traditional 
means  of  discipHne.  Upon  those  who  have  grown  callous 
to  the  palm  of  the  hand,  a  shingle  may  be  profitably  em- 
ployed, although  it  should  be  noted  that  some  authorities 
object  to  any  blows  upon  the  buttocks  as  unhygienic-— 
maintaining  that  they  tend  to  cause  congestion  of  the 
capillaries  in  the  neighborhood  of  the  genital  organs, 
thereby  giving  rise  to  serious  dangers.  St.  Louis  ^  pre- 
scribes that  corporal  punishment  "shall  not  be  inflicted 
otherwise  than  by  using  a  thin  rattan  upon  the  fleshy  part 
of  the  back."  La  Crosse,  Wis.,^  rules  that  corporal  pun- 
ishment "shall  be  restricted  to  the  use  of  a  leather  strap, 
preferably  on  the  palm  of  the  hand."  A  light  "switch" 
(such  as  the  birch  of  our  grandfathers)  appHed  around  the 
legs  is  sometimes  effective.  Unyielding  rods  should  not 
be  used  in  any  case,  and  it  is  always  well  to  avoid  anything 
that  will  leave  a  "welt,"  which,  although  it  may  look  far 
more  dangerous  than  it  really  is,  is  apt  to  cause  trouble- 
some investigations. 

prohibited,  and  the  Board  will  hold  its  teachers  strictly  responsible  for 
any  violation  of  this  rule."  —  St.  Louis  Public  Schools:  Abstract  from 
Rules  and  Regulations,  Reg.  7,  Sec.  ii. 

"Striking  the  children  on  the  mouth,  on  the  car,  or  on  the  head  is 
strictly  prohibited."  —  Chester,  Pa. :  Manual  of  the  Public  Schools^ 
1904-1905,  p.  61. 

*  Op.  cit.,  p.  24. 

'  La  Crosse,  Wis. :  Course  of  Study  and  Rules  and  Regulations,  1898, 
p.  81. 


128  CLASSROOM    MANAGEMENT 

15.  (b)  In  a  graded  school  it  is  customary  for  the  prin- 
cipal to  inflict  all  necessary  corporal  punishment.  This 
is  essentially  a  man's  duty,  except,  perhaps,  with  children 
in  the  primary  grades.  Most  ruHngs  upon  this  matter 
prescribe  either  that  the  principal  shall  inflict  the  punish- 
ment in  the  presence  of  the  classroom  teacher  or  the 
teacher  in  the  presence  of  the  principal.  In  almost  every 
case  the  principal's  sanction  is  necessary  before  the  teacher 
can  inflict  corporal  punishment. 

The  following  citations  will  sufficiently  indicate  the  pre- 
vailing practice  in  this  regard :  — 

"Teachers  are  charged  under  the  principal  with  entire  con- 
trol and  discipline  of  their  pupils  and  are  held  responsible 
for  their  conduct;  but  must  not  inflict  corporal  punishment 
except  after  consultation  with  and  by  permission  of  the  prin- 
cipal." * 

"Teachers  shall  use  kind  and  persuasive  measures  with  their 
pupils,  and  should  this  fail,  they  shall  report  the  case  to  the 
principal,  who  may  inflict,  or  cause  to  be  inflicted,  such  corporal 
punishment  as  he  may  think  the  case  demands;  but  no  teacher 
or  principal  shall  in  any  case,  or  under  any  pretense,  punish 
children  in  the  schools  by  striking  or  slapping  on  or  about  the 
head,  or  on  the  hand,  or  by  shaking  them  violently.  Corporal 
punishment  shall  not  in  any  case  be  administered  in  the  pres- 
ence of  the  school,  but  in  the  presence  of  the  principal  or  super- 
intendent, or  one  or  more  teachers."  ^ 

"Where  corporal  punishment  is  necessary,  it  must  be  ad- 
ministered by  the  teacher  under  the  direction  and  supervision 

*  Course  of  Study  and  Rules  and  Regulations,  Public  Schools  of  Duval 
County,  Fla.  (Jacksonville),  1902,  p.  57. 

•Fort  Worth,  Tex.,  Public  Schools:  Manual,  1904-1905,  p.  15. 


PENALTIES  129 

of  the  principal  of  the  school,  or,  where  this  is  impossible,  in 
the  presence  of  another  teacher."  * 

"The  authority  to  inflict  corporal  punishment  is  given  to 
every  teacher,  but  such  punishment  shall  be  inflicted  only  in 
the  presence  and  with  the  sanction  of  the  principal.  Each 
teacher  shall  file  with  the  superintendent,  at  the  close  of  each 
month,  a  list  of  all  cases  of  corporal  punishment  inflicted  by 
said  teacher  during  the  month,  giving  date,  name  of  pupil,  and 
cause  and  extent  of  punishment."  ^ 

16.  (c)  In  view  of  the  natural  tendency  of  the  child's 
mind  to  exaggerate  or,  at  least,  to  distort  actual  occur- 
rences, it  is  well  always  to  have  an  adult  witness  when 
punishment  is  inflicted.  This  is  sometimes  impracticable ; 
indeed,  the  fact  that  such  punishment  should  be  associated 
very  closely  with  the  act  that  occasioned  it  would  fre- 
quently make  the  delay  in  securing  witnesses  inimical  to 
the  efficiency  of  the  penalty.  But  in  all  cases  from  which 
outside  interference  is  anticipated,  witnesses  should  be 
secured.  In  such  cases,  also,  every  precaution  should  be 
taken  to  eliminate  any  conditions  that  might  imjustly  be 
turned  against  the  teacher.  For  example,  if  a  brittle  rod 
is  broken  during  the  act  of  punishment,  the  very  statement, 
"The  teacher  broke  a  stick  over  the  child,"  has  an  ugly 
sound,  and  will  surely  tell  against  one  in  popular  opinion, 
if  not  even  in  a  court  of  law,  although  the  blow  itself 
may  be  quite  innocuous.' 

>  Chester,  Pa.:    Manual  of  the  Public  Schools,  1904-1905,  p.  61. 
'  Bay  City,  Mich. :  Manual  of  Public  Schools,  1904,  p.  203. 
*  For  a  digest  of  regulations  in  the  larger  cities,  see  Report  of  Com- 
missioner of  Education,  1900,  pp.  2578  S. 


I30  CLASSROOM  MANAGEMENT 

17.  (d)  Most  of  the  citations  also  prescribe  that  pun- 
ishment shall  not  be  inflicted  in  the  presence  of  other 
children.  This  is  doubtless  a  wise  provision,  although  it 
may  be  urgjed  on  the  other  side  that  an  occasional  pun- 
ishment inflicted  before  the  class  will  have  a  preventive 
influence  among  other  pupils.  The  benefits  of  such  a 
practice  must  be  balanced  up  against  its  disadvantages. 
An  exhibition  of  the  brute  strength  that  a  teacher  can  if 
necessary  command  may  strike  fear  into  the  hearts  of  the 
witnesses,  but  it  may  also  arouse  a  spirit  of  antagonism  that 
will  encourage  others  to  court  the  penalty  for  sake  of  the 
accompanying  martyrdom.  In  general,  the  practice  is  to 
be  condemned  on  the  same  grounds  that  public  executions 
are  condemned ;  namely,  because,  in  both  cases,  morbid 
interests  are  aroused  that  tend  to  brutalize  the  onlookers. 

18.  {e)  The  general  principles  of  child  development 
would  indicate  that  corporal  punishment  has  its  chief 
sphere  during  the  formative  period  of  the  child's  life 
(eight  to  twelve) ;  but  this  rule,  while  holding  in  the  main, 
is  subject  to  some  exceptions.  Occasionally  an  adolescent 
is  benefited  by  the  application  of  the  rod,  but  experience 
in  the  classroom  testifies  that  most  cases  of  imfortunate 
results  from  corporal  punishment  originate  in  the  pun- 
ishment of  those  who  have  passed  puberty.  It  must  be 
remembered  that  corporal  punishment  is  an  extreme 
measure  to  be  resorted  to  only  when  a  reasonable  trial  of 
more  gentle  methods  fails  in  effect.  It  is  generally  agreed 
that  "  moral  suasion"  is  not  often  effective  with  pupils  in 
the  formative  stage  of  growth,  but  that  it  is  very  frequently 


PENALTIES  131 

effective  with  adolescents.  It  appeals  solely  to  the  "  rea- 
son "  and  to  the  sentiments  founded  upon  rather  advanced 
judgment-products.  If  the  pupil  can  be  led  to  see  why 
his  misdemeanors  cannot  be  permitted  to  continue,  he 
will,  if  he  is  an  average  child,  desist  from  their  practice.  It 
is  at  this  point  that  corporal  punishment  or  any  form  of 
extreme  penalty  becomes  useless,  and  its  application  beyond 
this  point,  while  often  practiced  for  the  sake  of  "  form," 
or  for  making  an  "  example,"  should  certainly  not  be 
countenanced.  When  an  adolescent  lacks  adolescent  char- 
acteristics, however,  —  when  he  fails  to  respond  to  reason, 
—  corporal  punishment  is  not  only  justified  but  demanded 
for  the  protection  of  the  majority. 

19.  Other  Penalties,  (a)  Rebukes.  Before  resorting  to 
corporal  punishment  the  efficiency  of  other  less  strenuous 
penalties  should  in  every  case  be  tested.  Lapses  from 
order  should  first  be  met  with  severe  (although  not  neces- 
sarily harsh)  verbal  reproval.  This  should  be  accom- 
panied by  a  fair  warning  that  further  lapses  must  result 
in  a  severer  penalty.  The  great  majority  of  children  will 
respond  effectively  to  a  rebuke;  it  is  only  the  small  mi- 
nority that  need  anything  more  drastic.  When  a  penalty 
has  been  promised,  it  should  in  every  case  be  inflicted  if  the 
occasion  arises.  One  of  the  worst  habits  in  school  mis- 
management is  to  tell  a  pupil  that  he  must  accept  a  cer- 
tain punishment  for  a  misdemeanor  and  then  "back 
down  "  from  inflicting  that  punishment.  A  "  suspended 
sentence  "  may  sometimes  be  employed,  but  it  is  dangerous 
for  the  young  teacher  to  practice  this  too  often. 


132  CLASSROOM    MANAGEMENT 

20.  (b)  Loss  of  Privileges.  To  deprive  a  pupil  of  a 
privilege  is  a  legitimate  and  often  effective  penalty  for 
offenses  against  discipline.  It  is  for  this  reason  that  the 
monitorial  system  described  in  a  former  chapter  is  to  be 
recommended,  especially  for  those  communities  where 
corporal  punishment  is  forbidden  either  by  statute,  by 
board  ruling,  or  by  public  opinion.  Deprivation  of 
a  privilege  is,  however,  often  ineffective  because  the 
privilege  is  not  prized  by  the  pupil.  Keeping  *' after 
school"  and  "keeping  in"  at  recess  soon  lose  their  sting, 
and  are  further  to  be  condemned  as  discipHnary  measures 
on  account  of  the  extra  service  which  they  require  of  the 
teacher.  No  single  pupil  should  be  led  to  think  that  his 
misdemeanors  will  entitle  him  to  a  greater  amount  of 
attention  from  the  teacher  than  the  average  well-behaved 
child  can  command.  It  is  for  this  reason  that  discipHnary 
penalties  should  always  be  swift,  certain,  and  as  Httle 
wasteful  of  time  as  is  possible  under  the  conditions, 

21.  (c)  Suspensions.  To  suspend  a  pupil  from  school 
in  order  to  secure  the  cooperation  of  his  parents  in  his 
government  is  not  to  be  looked  upon  as  good  practice 
except  under  abnormal  conditions.  School  officers  have 
legal  authority  over  the  child  while  he  is  within  the  school 
premises.  They  are  paid  to  exercise  this  authority,  not  to 
evade  the  responsibiHty  that  it  imposes.  They  are  in  loco 
parentis  J  and,  legally,  the  parents  themselves  have  no  more 
power  during  this  time  than  the  teacher.  If  the  former 
have  more  influence  with  the  recalcitrant,  the  fault  lies 
with  the  teacher,  and  the  duty  of  government  should  not 


PENALTIES  133 

for  this  reason  be  placed  upon  the  parents'  shoulders. 
Moreover,  the  pupils  who  are  most  difficult  to  govern  in 
school  are  usually  those  from  whose  homes  the  least  help 
could  be  obtained. 

Occasionally  a  parent  demands  that  all  cases  of  discipline 
with  reference  to  his  children  be  referred  to  him  before  being 
acted  upon  by  the  school  authorities.  The  writer  has,  once  or 
twice,  been  informed  that,  if  a  child  is  to  be  punished,  the 
parents  withhold  the  right  to  inflict  the  penalty.  He  acceded 
willingly  enough  to  this  request  on  the  first  occasion,  but  the 
results  were  so  disastrous  to  the  discipline  of  the  school  that' 
he  has  made  it  a  rule  since  that  time  tactfully  but  firmly  to 
insist  upon  parents'  recognition  of  his  legal  status,  unless, 
indeed,  the  parent  is  willing  to  inflict  the  punishment  in  his 
presence.  He  has  explained  that  the  teacher  is  always  respon- 
sible to  the  law  for  the  abuse  of  his  power  and  that  an  injured 
party  may,  if  he  wishes,  seek  redress  through  the  courts.  He 
has  also  explained  that  such  interference  by  the  parent  with  the 
duties  that  rightfully  belong  to  the  teacher  cannot  fail  to  place 
the  teacher  m  an  unjust  light  in  the  eyes  of  his  pupils  and  of  the 
community  at  large. 

Far  mor^i  disastrous,  however,  than  the  interference  of  parents 
is  the  officious  meddling  of  boardsmen  and  others  who  may 
happen  to  have  "influence."  In  such  cases,  there  is  but  one 
alternative  open  to  the  true  craftsman:  either  such  interfer- 
ence must  cease  or  he  must  resign  instantly.  It  would  be  a 
bright  day  for  the  calling  of  Schoolcraft  if  all  teachers  could 
come  to  an  absolute  agreement  upon  this  point.  One  who  for 
a  moment  truckles  to  political  influence  in  school  work  does 
incalculable  harm  to  the  cause  of  education.  If  craft  ideals 
and  standards  are  needed  anywhere,  it  is  surely  at  this  point. 
There  must  be  some  things  that  a  teacher  will  not  do,  no  matter 
what  the  temptation,  —  no  matter^  even^  if  one's  bread  and 


134  CLASSROOM    MANAGEMENT 

butter  depend  entirely  upon  doing  them.  The  physician  would 
starve  rather  than  be  unfaithful  to  certain  standards  of  his 
profession.  He  might  gain  wealth  by  such  infidelity,  but  he 
would  lose  something  that  is  far  dearer  to  him  than  any  amount 
of  wealth;  namely,  professional  standing.  The  same  is 
true,  although  in  lesser  degree,  of  the  lawyer.  The  members 
of  these  professions  make  their  own  standards,  set  up  their  own 
ideals.  The  general  pubHc  very  wisely  keeps  its  hands  off. 
This  is  the  condition  that  should  prevail  in  schoolcraft,  and, 
until  it  does  prevail,  the  work  of  education  will  never  rank 
with  other  human  callings  requiring  a  like  training  of  its  novi- 
tiates. 

22.  (d)  Expulsions.  To  expel  a  pupil  from  school  is 
the  very  last  resort  in  cases  of  discipline.  With  even  the 
worst  offenders  there  is  less  danger  to  society  in  keeping 
them  at  school  than  in  permitting  them  to  run  at  large. 
Where  parental  schools  are  maintained  for  the  reception 
of  such  cases,  there  are  occasions  when  the  ordinary  public 
school  may  wisely  turn  over  to  this  special  institution  the 
cases  that  are  relatively  incorrigible  by  normal  methods. 
But  where  parental  schools  are  not  provided,  ceitainly  no 
pupil  not  positively  degenerate  should  be  turned  out  into 
the  street.  This,  of  course,  does  not  apply  to  older  pupils 
who  have  passed  the  legal  school  age.  Such  individuals 
may  be  presumed  to  have  attained  a  maturity  that  will 
render  disciplinary  measures  unnecessary,  and,  if  they 
fail  to  accommodate  themselves  to  the  requirements  of 
the  school,  it  is  an  injustice  to  the  others  to  retain  them. 

23.  (e)  Sending  Pupils  to  the  Principal.  A  large  pro- 
portion of  the  classroom  teachers  in  the  city  systems  serve 


PENALTIES  135 

under  supervising  principals.  This  condition  should  make 
discipline  rather  simpler  than  where  the  classroom  teacher 
is  independent.  The  principal  is  usually  a  man,  while 
the  classroom  teacher  is  almost  invariably  a  woman.  The 
natural  division  of  labor  would  seem  to  indicate  that  the 
heavier  tasks  of  discipline  should  devolve  upon  the  male 
official,  and  many  principals  are  chivalrous  enough  to 
take  this  view  of  the  matter.  They  will  support  the  class- 
room teacher  with  all  the  muscular  force  and  all  the  in- 
fluence emanating  from  higher  authority  that  each  indi- 
vidual case  demands.  If  the  pupils  respect  the  principal, 
they  will  dislike  being  sent  to  him  for  offenses  against 
order,  and  in  this  simple  measure  the  teacher  can  often 
solve  the  most  troublesome  problems.  Not  all  principals 
will  shoulder  this  responsibility,  however.  Some  believe 
that  it  weakens  the  classroom  teacher.  Others  are  only 
too  glad  to  leave  the  "  heavy  work"  to  the  women.  In 
any  case,  a  teacher's  reputation  and  standing  will  be 
lowered  if  the  practice  is  indulged  too  frequently.  The 
young  teacher  who  tries  this  remedy  several  times  and 
finds  it  ineffective  may  safely  come  to  the  conclusion  that 
other  measures  are  demanded. 

The  most  reliable  source  of  data  concerning  punishment  of 
school  children  nlust  always  be  the  experience  of  the  teach- 
ers who  are  in  closest  touch  with  the  problems  of  discipline. 
The  following  propositions  are  taken  from  a  report*  which 
represents  a  consensus  of  the  experience  of  about  ©ne  himdred 
successful  teachers  in  Rhode  Island. 

^  "  Report  on  Syllabus  concerning  School  Punishment  and  Penalties," 
apth  Annual  Report,  State  Board  of  Education,  Rhode  Island,  1899. 


136  CLASSROOM    MANAGEMENT 

(i)    The  classroom  teacher  should  administer  punishment 
for  classroom  offenses. 

(2)  Little  time  should  elapse  between  the  misdemeanor  and 
the  punishment.  ' 

(3)  Children  should  not  be  punished  in  the  presence  of 
other  children. 

(4)  Children  should  not  be  punished  by  one  who  is  labor- 
ing under  the  emotion  of  anger. 

(5)  Intentional,  willful,  and  premeditated  offenses  should 
be  punished. 

(6)  Repeated  offenses  should  be  punished. 

(7)  Offenses  not  apt  to  be  repeated  should  not  be  punished. 

(8)  Not  all  children  require  the  same  punishment  for  the 
same  offense. 

(9)  Children  should  always  clearly  understand  why  they 
are' punished. 

(10)  Punishments  tend  to  reform  the  pupil  if  he  sees  their 
justice. 

(11)  Suspension  should  be  the  last  resort. 

(12)  Punishment  should  not  be  used  for  the  sake  of  "  mak- 
ing an  example." 

(13)  Sarcasm,  ridicule,  and  satire  should  not  be  used  as 
punishments. 

(14)  The  majority  of  parents  who  are  consulted  favor  cor- 
poral punishment. 

(15)  Tasks  should  not  be  employed  as  punishments. 

References.  —  Tompkins.:  Philosophy  of  School  Management, 
pp.  1 70-181;  J.  S.  Taylor:  Class  Management  and  Discipline,  ch.  v; 
Kellogg:  School  Management,  ch.  viii;  Seeley:  School  Manage- 
ment, ch.  viii;  J.  A.  H.  Keith:  Elementary  Education,  Chicago, 
1905,  pp.  119-133,  288. 


PART  II 

JUDGMENT  FACTORS  IN  CLASSROOM  MAN- 
AGEMENT 

CHAPTER  IX 

The  Problem  of  Attention 

I.  It  has  been  attempted  in  the  preceding  chapters  to 
indicate  the  various  points  at  which  an  application  of  the 
law  of  habit-building  may  serve  to  prevent  waste  in  the 
educative  process  as  applied  to  children  dealt  with  in  the 
mass.  In  a  well-organized  classroom  the  matters  already 
mentioned  will  take  care  of  themselves ;  and  the  first  aim 
of  the  classroom  teacher  should  be  to  reduce  to  the  plane 
of  routine  or  group-habit  all  of  the  necessary  details  that 
can  profitably  be  cared  for  in  this  way.  The  problems  of 
management,  however,  do  not  end  with  this  reduction  of 
detail  to  automatic  routine.  Even  in  the  classroom  that 
is  best  organized  the  teacher  must  constantly  meet  new 
questions  that  arise  with  regard  to  the  main  problem  of 
our  discussion.  The  effective  treatment  of  pupils  in  the 
mass  must,  in  other  words,  always  involve  judgment;  it 
can  never  be  reduced  entirely  to  the  machine  basis. 

The  problem  of  Part  II,  therefore,  is  to  consider  the 
general  principles,  standards,  or  ideals  that  should  govern 
the  teacher  in  the  non-routine  phases  of  his  work.    As  in 

137 


138  CLASSROOM   MANAGEMENT 

Part  I,  the  question  is  still,  at  basis,  a  question  of  economy : 
How  can  class  work  be  made  to  return  the  largest  possible 
dividend  on  a  practicable  investment  of  time,  energy,  and 
money  ? 

2.  Beyond  doubt  the  greatest  source  of  waste  in  the  work 
of  education  results  from  the  difficulty  encountered  in 
securing  and  holding  the  attention  of  all  pupils  to  the 
subject-matter  of  instruction.  The  problem  is  complex 
and  difficult,  and  its  solution  involves  the  balancing  of  a 
multitude  of  diverse  factors.  Simply  to  secure  attention, 
simply  to  hold  attention  —  if  these  were  the  only  factors, 
the  situation  would  be  somewhat  simplified.  But  here, 
perhaps,  more  than  anywhere  else,  the  methods  that  are 
employed  to  insure  economy  in  school  work  must  be  sub- 
jected to  the  rigorous  test  of  the  ultimate  end  of  education, 
for  they  involve  the  operation  of  educative  forces  that  are 
as  fundamental  as  the  subject-matter  of  instruction  itself. 

3.  The  first  step  in  the  solution  of  this  problem  is  to 
inquire  of  the  psychologist  what  laws  govern  attention. 
Every  one  knows  that  some  things  are  easily  attended  to, 
and  that  other  things  are  attended  to  with  great  difficulty. 
Every  one  also  knows  that  the  things  attended  to  with 
difficulty  are  often  the  things  that  are  most  essential  for 
one  to  attend  to.     These  are  facts  of  common  knowledge. 

Psychology  attempts  to  go  further  than  this  —  it  tries 
to  classify  the  things  that  attract  attention  easily  and  to 
find  out  just  why  they  do  so.  It  tries  also  to  classify  the 
things  that  are  difficult  to  attend  to,  and  to  discover  the 
reason  for  this  difficulty.    Various  bases  have  been  adopted 


THE  PROBLEM   OF  ATTENTION  139 

for  these  classifications,  and  not  all  psychologists  are  yet 
agreed  as  to  the  best  basis.  The  following  discussion  will 
adopt  what  may  be  called  the  biological  point  of  view  as 
offering  the  most  satisfactory  explanation  of  the  phenomena 
of  attention  as  applied  in  schoolroom  practice. 

4.  The  Doctrine  of  Ends.  From  the  biological  point  of 
view  it  is  clear  that  attention  must  bear  some  direct  rela- 
tion to  the  needs  of  the  organism.  We  attend  to  certain 
things  primarily  because  they  are,  in  one  fashion  or 
another,  essential  to  our  well-being.  We  are  not  always 
conscious  of  these  needs;  one,  for  instance,  may  attend 
to  a  flash  of  light,  or  to  a  sharp  pain,  or  to  a  moving  object, 
for  no  conscious  reason  save  that  the  stimulus,  as  we  say, 
"  catches  the  attention."  But  why  are  we  so  constituted 
that  we  attend  to  these  things?  The  real  reason  must 
be  sought  in  race  history.  When  our  ancestors  lived 
under  very  primitive  conditions,  as  they  did  for  thousands 
of  generations,  it  was  absolutely  essential  to  the  existence 
of  the  organism  that  it  be  able  to  note  any  marked  dis- 
turbance in  its  environment.  Survival  under  primitive 
conditions  was  conditioned  absolutely  upon  the  instinctive 
tendencies  to  attend  to  all  stimuli  that  could,  in  any  marked 
degree,  become  danger  signals. 

All  of  our  instincts^  then,  —  all  of  those  complex  adjust- 
ments with  which  nature  has  provided  us,  —  become  cor- 
relates, on  the  mental  or  conscious  side,  of  what  may  be 
termed  tendencies  to  attend  —  tendencies  to  hold  conscious- 
ness open  and  receptive  to  whatever  impressions  may  fit 
in  with  the  instinct.     Thus,  the  instinctive  need  to  note 


I40  CLASSROOM    MANAGEMENT 

the  presence  of  moving  objects  in  the  environment  is 
correlated  with  a  law  of  attention :  movement  anywhere 
within  the  range  of  the  field  of  vision  will  "draw  the  eyes" 
in  that  direction  —  will  attract  our  notice.  When  the 
cra\ings  of  hunger  affect  us,  anything  that  will  satisfy 
these  cravings  attracts  our  attention.  Our  minds  are,  as 
it  were,  keyed  or  attuned  to  these  various  sorts  of  stimuli 
by  the  tension  of  the  instinct  that  is  functioning  at  the 
time. 

It  will  be  noted  that  attention  in  all  these  cases  is  de- 
termined by  an  immediate  end,  and  that  this  end  is  the 
satisfaction  of  the  organic  need  which  is  instinctively  felt. 
Action  based  upon  attention  of  this  sort  does  not  look  into 
the  future,  it  takes  no  account  of  any  remote  consequences. 
Furthermore  its  expression  is,  so  far  as  the  individual  is 
concerned,  purely  selfish.  It  may,  it  is  true,  have  social 
or  altruistic  impHcations,  as  in  the  case  of  the  mothering 
instinct,  but  in  so  far  as  the  direct  reaction  upon  the 
individual  is  concerned,  it  satisfies  an  immediate,  organic, 
innate,  instinctive  need. 

It  is  clearly  evident  that  this  law  of  attention  can  be 
appUed  effectively  to  improving  the  application  of  pupils 
to  the  tasks  that  are  set  for  their  accompHshment.  If  an 
instinctive  need  can  be  appealed  to,  the  result  will  be  sure 
and  certain.  This  may  be  called  the  "First  Law,"  or  the 
•*Law  of  Primary  Passive  Attention,"  and  its  operation 
\vill  be  treated  in  detail  in  a  later  section. 

5.  The  Second  Law.  The  operation  of  the  first  law  is 
quite  independent  of  any  conscious  end  or  purpose  save 


THE   PROBLEM  OF   ATTENTION  I4I 

the  immediate  satisfaction  of  an  instinctive  or  organic 
need.  It  is  distinctively  the  law  of  the  lower  types  of 
mind.  No  animal  below  the  rank  of  man  ever  rises  very 
far  above  its  operation.  It  is  the  essential  prerogative  of 
the  human  mind,  however,  to  "look  ahead,"  to  project 
itself  into  the  future,  to  construct  in  imagination  an  idea 
of  what  this  future  will  bring  forth  or  demand,  and  then 
to  adapt  its  adjustments  to  the  end  thus  previewed.  The 
fundamental  importance  of  this  capacity  to  human  de- 
velopment can  never  be  overestimated.  It  stands  as  the 
prime  factor  in  human  evolution.  It  is  the  significant 
characteristic  of  Homo  sapiens^  for  thinking  —  reasoning 

—  is  nothing  more  nor  less  than  this  constructive  activity 
of  the  human  mind. 

What  does  this  mean  in  terms  of  attention?  Simply 
this,  that  whenever  attention  is  determined  by  an  end 
that  is  consciously  beyond  the  needs  of  the  moment, — 
whenever  present  desires  and  impulses  are  inhibited  or 
suppressed  for  the  sake  of  some  remote  end  to  be  gained, 

—  a  struggle  is  inevitable  between  the  thing  that  one  de- 
sires to  attend  to  and  the  thing  that  one  knows  one  should 
attend  to.  It  is  clear  that,  in  general,  the  nearer  the  end, 
the  more  likelihood  that  it  will  conquer  the  momentary 
impulse.  It  is  also  clear  that,  the  more  vivid  the  image 
of  the  end  to  be  reached,  the  more  HkeHhood  that  the 
momentary  impulse  will  be  defeated.  Likewise,  the  more 
highly  the  end  is  tinged  with  desire  or  positive  emotional 
force,  again  the  greater  hkelihood  that  it  will  be  victorious 
in  its  struggles.    All  of  these  principles  are  simple  corol- 


142  CLASSROOM    MANAGEMENT 

laries  of  the  general  law;  they  are  practically  axiomatic; 
and  yet  it  is  safe  to  say  that  no  principles  so  fundamental 
as  these  have  been  so  woefully  neglected  in  educational 
practice. 

Because  of  this  struggle  between  the  impulse  of  the 
moment  and  the  idea  of  a  remote  end  that  may  be  gained 
by  suppressing  this  impulse,  this  variety  of  attention  is 
known  as  "  active,"  and  the  principle  governing  its 
operation  may  be  conveniently  referred  to  as  the  "Second 
Law"  of  attention. 

One  or  two  concrete  instances  will  suggest  to  the  reader  a 
number  of  personal  experiences  that  will  tend  to  bear  out  the 
above  statements.  The  effort  essential  to  ''get  down"  to 
work,  unless  forced  by  some  immediate  need  or  impelled  through 
the  operation  of  habit  (which,  however,  involves  an  element 
yet  to  be  discussed),  is  typical  of  the  struggle  between  the 
end  and  the  impulse.  Impulse  always  makes  for  variety  and 
abhors  monotony,  but  monotony  is  often  necessary  to  reach 
some  remote  end.  One  is  ambitious,  for  example,  to  become  a 
musician.  The  start  is  made  valiantly  enough,  the  bright  pic- 
ture of  future  honors  and  adulation  being  sufficient  to  keep  one 
to  the  routine  and  discipline  of  the  preparatory  process  for  some 
little  time.  Sooner  or  later,  however,  the  monotony  becomes 
irksome,  and  the  intense  desire  to  have  done  with  it  all  and  be 
off  "on  another  tack"  is  apt  to  take  complete  possession  of  one's 
mind.  In  case  the  triumph  is  complete,  —  as  it  is  in  the  sad 
majority  of  cases,  —  the  change  is  made,  the  discipline  lapses 
by  degrees,  and  is  finally  abandoned  altogether,  and  the  ambi- 
tion that  once  burnt  so  brightly  dies  away.  Hence  arises  the 
necessity  in  all  branches  of  education  to  present  as  an  incen- 
tive to  effort,  not  only  one  remote  end,  but  all  sorts  of  inter- 


THE   PROBLEM   OF   ATTENTION  I43 

mediate  ends,  the  approach  and  attainment  of  which  shall  keep 
the  worker  at  his  task  until  finally  the  daily  discipline  of  toil 
becomes  a  matter  of  habit,  and  the  remote  end  is  constantly 
approached  without  undue  struggle,  and  perhaps  drops  entirely 
out  of  consciousness. 

In  the  work  of  the  schoolroom,  the  principle  finds  application 
in  a  multitude  of  devices,  some  of  which  will  be  discussed  in  a 
later  section.  The  grading  and  promoting  system  may  serve 
as  an  illustration  in  the  present  connection.  The  remote  end 
of  education  is  far  too  distant  and  abstract  a  conception  for 
even  fairly  mature  students  to  grasp,  much  less  little  children 
in  the  early  stages  of  the  process.  For  this  reason  a  series  of 
ends,  less  remote,  must  be  introduced,  and  this  gives  rise  to 
the  grading  system  with  its  attendant  examinations  and  pro- 
motions. Each  step  in  the  attainment  of  the  remote  end  is 
terminated  by  some  sort  of  test  as  to  the  character  of  the  work 
done  during  the  step,  and  this  test  will  act,  under  the  proper 
conditions,  as  an  incentive  to  effort  in  the  pupils.  At  the  out- 
set the  steps  are  short,  for  the  end  cannot  be  too  remote,  else 
it  will  lose  its  effectiveness  as  an  incentive.  As  the  pupil 
develops,  the  end  is  placed  at  a  point  farther  and  farther  away, 
until,  in  the  graduate  courses  of  the  university,  a  period  of 
three  years  may  lapse  before  the  student  is  subjected  to  an 
examination. 

6.  The  Third  Law.  In  the  preceding  discussion  it  has 
been  assumed  that  the  kind  of  attention  termed  "active" 
always  operates  against  some  impulse  or  instinctive  ten- 
dency. If  such  is  the  case,  what  shall  we  call  that  form  of 
attention  that  is  given  freely  and  without  effort  to  an 
activity  that  makes  for  a  remote  end  and  still  does  not 
"  fit  in  "  with  an  instinctive  tendency  ?  It  is  obvious  enough 
that  one  comes  to  enjoy  one's  work;    that  one  finds  no 


144  CLASSROOM    MANAGEMENT 

difficulty  whatsoever  in  following  a  line  of  activity  that 
makes  unerringly  for  an  end  that  one  has  previewed. 
The  explanation  is  to  be  found  in  an  extension  of  the  law 
of  habit.  We  become  habituated  in  course  of  time  to 
almost  anything  that  we  persevere  in,  no  matter  how  dis- 
agreeable that  thing  may  have  been  at  the  outset.  That 
is,  the  inhibition  of  distracting  impulses  becomes  a  habit, 
becomes  unconscious.  This  sort  of  attention  is  termed 
** secondary  passive,"  and  the  principle  that  governs  its 
operation  may  be  called  the  "Third  Law"  of  attention. 

This  must  not  be  construed  as  meaning  that  attention  be- 
comes a  habit.  Strictly  speaking,  there  is  no  such  thing  as  a 
"habit  of  attention."  Habit  and  attention  are  the  two  ex- 
tremes of  mental  life.  One  may,  however,  habitually  assume 
the  attitude  of  attention,  and  one  may  habitually  repress  im- 
pulses that  are  inconsistent  with  attention,  or  habitually  resist 
temptations  which  distract.  It  is  only  in  this  sense  that  a 
"habit  of  attention"  means  anything  whatsoever. 

This  secondary  passive  attention  might  be  called  the 
terminus  ad  quern  of  the  teacher's  work.  When  the  pupil 
has  reached  this  stage,  all  that  he  needs  is  direction  and 
suggestion.  Prior  to  this  time  his  effort  must  be  incited 
by  one  form  of  stimulus  or  another;  after  this  time,  his 
effort  is  given  freely :  all  that  now  needs  to  be  done  is  to 
see  to  it  that  this  effort  is  expended  profitably  and  econom- 
ically. The  successful  teacher  is  he  who  can  get  his  pupils 
into  this  stage  most  effectively.  The  ideal  school  (which 
can  probably  never  be  realized  in  practice)  is  one  in  which 
every  pupil  works  for  the  joy  that  the  working  brings  him. 


THE    PROBLEM   OF   ATTENTION  I45 

Needless  to  say,  the  problem  that  pedagogy  is  concerned 
with  lies  not  so  much  in  the  operation  of  the  third  law  as 
in  the  operation  of  the  first  and  second  laws.  The  effort 
of  educational  theory  is  to  find  some  means  of  applying 
the  first  and  second  laws  in  such  a  fashion  that  the  con- 
ditions demanded  for  the  successful  operation  of  the 
third  law  may  be  fulfilled.  Too  many  treatises  on  teach- 
ing start  with  secondary  passive  attention.  They  assume 
that  the  effort  of  the  pupils  will  be  given  freely  in  any 
desired  direction.  This  is  a  simple  case  of  begging  the 
question. 

Most  authorities  upon  pedagogy  and  school  management, 
for  example,  speak  of  interest  in  one's  work  as  an  incentive  to 
effort ;  but  interest  in  work  for  its  own  sake  is  not  at  all  akin  to 
an  interest  that  attaches  to  a  remote  end,  toward  the  attain- 
ment of  which  the  work  or  effort  is  but  a  means.  The  very 
common  advice  given  as  a  sort  of  blanket  precept  to  insure  suc- 
cess in  teaching  —  ''Make  the  work  interesting"  —  is  about 
as  futile  and  ineffective  as  the  dictum  discussed  above,  —  "Keep 
the  pupils  busy."  Every  teacher  knows  that  the  thing  to  do 
is  to  make  the  work  interesting;  the  point  where  advice  is 
needed  is  not  what  to  do,  but  how  to  do  it.  There  are  many 
tasks  involved  in  education  that  are  not  intrinsically  interesting. 
Sometimes,  however,  after  effort  has  been  initiated  and  sus- 
tained by  means  of  a  powerful  incentive,  the  task  gradually 
becomes  fascinating  in  itself.  The  incentive  may  now  very 
well  be  forgotten,  for  its  utility  is  at  an  end. 

7.  It  will  be  necessary  in  the  present  discussion  to  leave 
the  treatment  of  the  third  law  at  this  point,  and  to  devote 
our  time  and  energy  to  the  first  two  laws.    These  will 


146  CLASSROOM    MANAGEMENT 

accordingly  be  treated  in  some  detail  in  the  two  following 
chapters.  It  should  always  be  borne  in  mind,  however,  — 
even  if  not  always  expHcitly  stated,  —  that  the  third  law 
must  come  to  operate  if  the  school  is  to  accomplish  its 
work  with  a  minimum  of  waste. 

References.  —  J.  R.  Angell :  Psychology ^  New  York,  1906, 
pp.  64-76;  E.  B.  Titchener:  Primer  of  Psychology,  New  York,  1899, 
ch.  V ;  H.  H.  Home :  The  Psychological  Principles  of  Education, 
New  York,  1906,  ch.  xxviii;  W.  C.  Bagley:  The  Educative  Process, 
ch.  vi. 


CHAPTER  X 

The  Problem  of  Attention  (Continued)  :  The 
Operation  of  the  First  Law 

1.  The  first  law  represents  the  activity  of  attention  at 
its  lowest  level  of  development.  Primary  passive  atten- 
tion is  determined  solely  by  instinct.  If  any  end  is  con- 
sciously in  view,  it  is  simply  the  immediate  gratification  of 
an  instinctive  desire.  The  problem  of  the  present  chapter, 
therefore,  is  to  inquire  into  the  operation  of  those  instincts 
that  can  be  utilized  in  schoolroom  practice  to  secure  atten- 
tion of  the  passive  order. 

2.  (a)  The  Instinctive  Desire  for  Change  and  Variety. 
This  is  the  most  general  expression  of  the  first  law.  The 
desire  for  change  and  variety  is  instinctive  in  all  human 
beings  irrespective  of  age  or  degree  of  culture.  Other 
instincts  may  be  outgrown  entirely  or  so  greatly  subdued 
that  the  accompanying  desires  never  become  a  source  of 
trouble,  but  this  fundamental  instinct  seems  too  deeply 
planted  ever  completely  to  be  eradicated.  It  is  true  that 
custom  and  habit  work  toward  stabiHty  of  habitat  and 
occupation.  The  older  one  grows,  the  less  one  likes  the 
thought  of  moving  to  another  locality  or  of  taking  up 
another  line  of  work ;  the  less  one  likes,  also,  to  have  one's 
routine  of  life  interfered  with  in  any  way.  But,  notwith- 
standing these  undoubted  facts,  it  still  remains  true  that 

147 


148  CLASSROOM    MANAGEMENT 

variety  of  stimulation  is  the  first  condition  of  an  alert 
mind.  One  must  be  almost  abnormal  who  is  not  tempted 
by  the  prospective  delights  of  a  journey  to  new  re^ons; 
who  is  not  attracted  by  the  ''news"  page  of  his  daily  paper, 
irrespective  of  the  bearing  of  its  contents  upon  his  own  Hfe 
or  work;  whose  attention  is  not  caught  and  held  by  the 
novel  and  unusual  in  the  routine  of  his  daily  Ufe.  The 
instinct  that  impels  us  to  seek  variety,  to  attend  to  the  new 
and  strange,  is  a  wise  provision  of  nature,  for  it  is  through 
this  instinct  that  attention  to  new  or  changed  conditions 
is  insured,  and  it  is  the  one  important  junction  of  attention 
to  concern  itself  with  the  new,  leaving  habit,  custom,  and 
automatism  to  take  care  of  the  old  and  familiar. 

3.  It  is  obvious  that  the  child  is  more  completely  the 
slave  of  distracting  influences  than  is  the  adult,  and  that 
the  younger  the  child,  the  more  pronounced  is  this  char- 
acteristic. The  pupil  in  the  lowest  grades  of  the  school 
is  quite  incapable  of  following  a  single  line  of  effort, 
either  in  play  or  in  work,  for  a  long  period.  One  who 
watches  children  at  play  will  be  quickly  impressed  by  the 
rapidity  with  which  one  game  or  activity  gives  way  to 
another.  At  one  moment  the  child  seems  to  be  absorbed 
in  a  certain  play  object.  As  you  watch  him,  you  think 
that  so  deep  an  interest  will  last  indefinitely.  But  in 
another  moment,  perhaps,  this  object  has  been  dropped 
and  another  taken  up,  and,  try  as  you  will,  you  cannot  force 
the  interest  back  to  the  first  object  that  attracted  it. 

It  is  necessary  for  the  educator  to  recognize  this  funda- 
mental fact  at  all  stages  of  the  educative  process.    Variety 


THE   PROBLEM  OF  ATTENTION  149 

must  be  constantly  introduced  in  some  form  or  another 
if  the  energy  that  expresses  itself  through  the  activity  of 
attention  is  to  be  expended  economically.  The  successful 
teacher  in  the  elementary  school  is  he  who  can  clothe  the 
famiUar  in  a  new  garb;  for  repetition  and  reiteration 
are  essential  at  all  points  of  the  teaching  process,  and, 
unless  repetition  and  reiteration  can  be  robbed  of  their 
monotony,  they  lose  by  far  the  greater  part  of  their  efl5- 
ciency. 

4.  The  operation  of  the  first  law  in  this  phase  of  its 
apphcation,  however,  involves  a  danger  that  should  not 
be  overlooked  or  minimized.  Although  attention  may  be 
secured  by  changing  the  occupation  of  the  pupil  the 
moment  tedium  sets  in,  the  net  result,  if  such  a  poHcy  were 
apphed  ad  libitum,  would  be  far  worse  than  any  loss  of 
energy  that  might  come  from  the  inattention  d'le  to  tedium. 
If  a  pupil  is  always  reheved  of  a  task  of  duty  the  moment 
that  it  becomes  irksome  to  him,  —  the  moment  that  he 
grows  "tired"  of  it,  —  development  is  bound  to  be  arrested 
upon  a  very  primitive  plane.  To  stick  to  one  line  of  effort 
in  spite  of  tedium  is  the  characteristic  that  differentiates 
work  from  play;  education  is  essentially  work,  and  the 
school  must  never  bUnd  itself  to  the  necessity  of  requiring 
the  conditions  of  work  in  the  environment  that  it  affords. 
Here,  as  elsewhere,  there  must  be  a  nice  adjustment  of 
opposing  forces.  The  first  law  of  attention  will  certainly 
find  frequent  employment  through  the  satisfaction  of  the 
desire  for  variety;  but  its  field  will  manifestly  be  much 
wider  in  the  earlier  than  in  the  later  stages  of  the  educative 


150  CLASSROOM    MANAGEMENT 

process,  and  at  all  times  the  law  must  be  applied  with  a 
full  recognition  on  the  part  of  the  teacher  of  the  dangers 
that  it  involves. 

No  small  part  of  the  criticism  passed  by  foreigners  upon 
American  schools  finds  its  justification  in  the  fact  that  American 
teachers  recognize  the  necessity  of  variety,  but  neglect  its  dan- 
gers. The  result  of  such  practice  is  haphazard,  "scatter- 
brained" effort,  devoted  to  a  multitude  of  diverse  tasks,  but 
never  sustained  and  directed  toward  the  complete  accomplish- 
ment of  any  one  line  of  work.  The  "formal"  subjects  of  the 
curriculum  —  reading,  spelling,  penmanship,  arithmetic  — 
naturally  suffer  most  seriously  from  this  oversight.  The  notion 
that  monotony  must  be  avoided  at  any  cost  has  led  to  the 
attempt  to  teach  these  branches  "incidentally"  in  connection 
with  more  interesting  and  attractive  "content"  work.  The 
results  are  what  one  who  was  well  grounded  in  fundamental 
psychological  principles  might  easily  have  foreseen. 

The  problem  here  presented  is  difficult  but  not  impossible 
of  solution.  There  must  needs  be  variety  in  the  drill  required 
for  the  mastery  of  the  formal  subjects,  but  this  variety  must 
always  respect  the  fundamental  nature  of  the  form  that  is  to 
be  impressed.  So  long  as  this  is  done,  no  harm  will  result,  but 
when  variety  and  interest  become  ends  in  themselves,  —  when 
content  work  of  all  kinds  becomes  the  only  explicit  subject  of 
instruction,  —  elementary  education  misses  its  main  purpose. 

5.  (b)  The  Play  Instinct.  This  may  be  looked  upon 
as  but  a  specific  expression  of  the  instinctive  desire  for 
change  and  variety.  Play  is  characterized  by  activity 
which  is  sufficient  in  and  for  itself ;  the  activity  of  play  is 
an  end  in  itself.  The  play  instinct  doubtless  has  a  deep 
and  vital  function  in  the  development  of  the  child,  insuring 


THE   PROBLEM   OF   ATTENTION  I5I 

the  activity  essential  to  the  growth  and  coordination  of  the 
muscles  and  to  the  development  of  motor  or  kinesthetic 
images.^  The  play  instinct  is  largely  used  in  kindergarten 
practice  as  a  simple  and  effective  means  of  securing  and 
holding  the  pupil's  attention.  It  has  also  a  legitimate 
field  of  application  in  the  lower  grades  of  the  elementary 
school,  where  the  repetition  that  is  essential  in  the  learning 
of  arithmetical  facts,  word-forms,  and  the  like  can  be  made 
more  interesting  by  employing  "games." 

6.  The  use  of  this  instinct  is  obviously  subject  to  the 
dangers  and  limitations  mentioned  in  connection  with  the 
instinctive  desire  for  variety.  If  carried  too  far,  the  pupil 
is  apt  to  gain  the  notion  that  all  of  the  routine  work  of  the 
school  must  be  made  interesting  and  attractive  by  the  intro- 
duction of  the  play  element.  The  powerful  ideal  of  duty, 
which  carries  men  safely  through  so  many  crises,  cannot  be 
developed  under  such  conditions,  and  it  is  safe  to  say 
that  no  more  important  task  is  imposed  upon  education 
than  to  develop  this  ideal.  But  one  should  not  rush  to 
the  other  extreme  and  aver  that  the  play  instinct  is  entirely 
out  of  place  in  the  school.  Again  there  must  be  a  nice 
adjustment  of  forces;  again  one  must  strive  to  hold  the 
clear  perspective.  An  environment  of  irksome  tasks,  un- 
relieved by  anything  that  could  gratify  the  play  instinct, 
would  be  as  fatal  to  the  ideal  of  duty  as  an  environment 
that  gratified  instinct  at  every  turn. 

What  is  termed  common  sense  may  be  very  safely  trusted  in 
determining  the  limitations  to  which  the  play  instinct  must  be 
*  Cf.  G.  S.  Hall:  Adolescence,  New  York,  1904,  vol.  i,  pp.  202  ff. 


152  CLASSROOM    MANAGEMENT 

subjected.  The  writer  once  heard  an  institute  instructor  recom« 
mend  a  certain  game  with  bean-bags  for  use  in  drills  on  the 
facts  of  multiplication.  The  teachers  who  were  present  agreed 
with  the  instructor  as  to  the  value  of  the  device,  believing 
it  to  be  recommended  for  very  young  children  only.  But 
when  the  instructor  intimated  that  it  could  be  profitably  util- 
ized in  the  seventh  and  eighth  grades,  the  teachers  questioned 
its  value.  The  great  majority  of  those  who  have  had  actual 
experience  in  handling  children  know  pretty  accurately  what 
can  be  done  with  them,  although  even  such  teachers  will  some- 
times "lose  their  heads"  when  a  new  and  radical  departure  is 
proposed  by  one  high  in  authority  and  presented  with  the  zeal 
and  earnestness  of  assured  conviction.  It  is  for  this  reason 
that  the  university  professor  of  education  is  apt  to  do  so  much 
harm  if  he  lacks  practical  experience  in  dealing  with  little 
children.  He  speaks  with  the  voice  of  authority,  and  he  gen- 
erally believes  implicitly  in  the  absolute  validity  of  his  untried 
theories. 

7.  {c)  The  Instinct  0}  Curiosity.  Like  the  instinct  of 
play,  this  is  but  a  specific  expression  of  the  desire  fornovelty. 
It  is  evidenced  by  the  constant  succession  of  ''Why's" 
with  which  children  of  certain  ages  besiege  their  parents 
and  teachers,  and  by  the  "Paul  Pry"  activities  of  both 
children  and  adults.  Like  all  instincts,  it  has  its  roots  in 
past  necessity.  The  first  manifestation  of  dawning  in- 
telligence in  the  race  was  doubtless  the  random  investi- 
gations that  followed  upon  the  birth  of  the  instinct  of 
curiosity.  In  the  beginning  this  instinct  is  easily  gratified, 
for  primitive  curiosity  looks  only  for  something  new,  and 
anything  that  is  new  suffices.  The  search  after  hidden 
causes,  the  passion  to  know  the  reason  for  phenomena,  is 


THE   PROBLEM  OF  ATTENTION  1 53 

an  acquired  characteristic  formed  through  the  operation 
of  active  attention  in  carrying  to  a  successful  issue  the 
vague  desires  aroused  by  the  instinct. 

The  instinct  of  curiosity  has  a  place  in  education.  It 
can  be  utilized  in  directing  attention  to  natural  laws  that 
explain  phenomena  whose  mystery  appeals  to  the  child- 
mind,  —  spectacular  phenomena  especially,  like  the  thun- 
derstorm, the  earthquake,  etc.  It  is  safe  to  lay  down  the 
rule  that,  whenever  curiosity  is  aroused  concerning  some- 
thing of  legitimate  interest,  the  teacher  should  do  every- 
thing within  his  power  to  gratify  it.  Attention  can  at  that 
time  be  easily  secured,  and  truths  driven  home  that  might 
prove  highly  resistant  if  left  until  a  later  period. 

A  great  calamity,  like  the  California  earthquake  or  the 
Galveston  flood,  that  attracts  universal  attention  for  a  brief 
period,  opens  the  way  for  the  explanation  of  the  catastrophe  in 
terms  of  natural  law.  At  such  a  time  all  children  are  open 
and  receptive  to  whatever  instruction  may  be  offered  that  is 
germane  to  the  center  of  interest.  It  is  strict  economy  to  make 
such  discussion  a  special  order  of  the  day,  interrupting  the 
program,  if  necessary,  in  order  to  get  from  the  burning  interest 
of  the  moment  every  particle  of  educative  value  that  can  be 
extracted.  Legitimate  occasions  of  this  sort  come  so  infre- 
quently that  one  need  fear  no  serious  effect  upon  the  regular 
routine.  In  the  writer's  experience,  for  example,  only  the  fol- 
lowing events  within  the  past  five  years  have  been  deemed 
worthy  of  such  treatment;  the  Pelee  disaster,  the  Baltimore 
fire  (a  center  of  interest  insuring  the  ready  assimilation  of 
geographical  facts  about  that  city),  the  outbreak  of  the  Russo- 
Japan  War,  and  the  San  Francisco  earthquake.  Matters  that 
are  of  less  general  interest,  owing  to  the  remoteness  of  the  scene 


154  CLASSROOM    MANAGEMENT 

of  action  or  other  causes,  —  for  example,  the  eruptions  of 
Vesuvius,  the  Valparaiso  earthquake,  and  the  Hong  Kong 
typhoon,  —  may  be  profitably  referred  to  in  the  geography 
classes,  but  will  hardly  repay  a  special  order  of  business  or  a 
breaking  into  the  regular  program. 

8.  Inasmuch  as  the  instinct  of  curiosity  is  mainly  excited 
by  the  spectacular,  it  is  clear  that  its  use  in  the  school  should 
be  temperate.  Of  course,  a  spectacular  halo  may  be 
thrown  around  almost  any  event,  but  such  a  policy  v^U 
sooner  or  later  defeat  its  own  purpose:  witness,  for  ex- 
ample, the  experience  of  the  "yellow"  newspapers  in 
attempting  to  find  a  new  sensation  for  each  issue.  Their 
cries  of  "Wolf!"  have  been  proved  so  often  to  be  bogus 
that  the  public  will  no  longer  heed  them,  even  though  the 
wolf  should  happen  at  some  time  to  be  real.  There  is  back 
of  this  a  sound  psychology  that  operates  with  equal  force 
in  the  schoolroom.  The  teacher  who  constantly  caters  to 
the  pupils'  love  of  the  spectacular  must  go  to  greater  and 
greater  lengths  if  he  would  attract  the  attention  of  his 
pupils,  and  the  time  must  come,  sooner  or  later,  when  his 
blasS  charges  will  be  bored  even  by  matters  of  legitimate 
interest. 

9.  (d)  The  Instinctive  Liking  for  Bright  Colors,  Sharp 
Contrasts y  and  Intense  Stimuli  of  All  Kinds.  One  of  the 
most  primitive  methods  of  attracting  attention  is  the  use 
of  bright  colors.  This  instinct  is  commonly  employed  in 
the  lower  grades  of  the  school  by  the  use  of  colored  ob- 
jects (balls,  splints,  etc.),  by  permitting  pupils  to  write 
and  draw  with  colored  crayon,  and  by  other  similar  prac- 


THE   PROBLEM  OF   ATTENTION  1 55 

rices.  The  use  of  colors  and  contrasts,  however,  for  the 
purpose  of  securing  attention  to  drill  processes  is  subject 
to  a  very  important  limitation.  It  has  been  long  known 
that  in  teaching  children  to  count,  the  objects  used  must 
not  be  too  attractive  in  themselves.  Variety  must  be  pro- 
vided, but  the  qualities  of  the  various  objects  must  be  of 
such  a  nature  that  they  will  not  distract  the  attention  from 
the  process  in  hand. 

In  their  anxiety  to  provide  a  variety  of  objects  for  drill  in 
counting  and  in  combining  numbers,  some  teachers  select 
flowers  that  are  brightly  colored,  cubes  and  balls  of  contrasting 
hues,  and  not  infrequently  edible  articles  such  as  nuts  and 
fruits.  If  the  reader  is  skeptical  as  to  the  distracting  influence 
of  these  qualities  that  are  extraneous  to  the  matter  in  hand,  let 
him  watch  an  exercise,  say,  in  counting  peanuts  just  prior  to 
the  noon  dismissal. 

lo.  (e)  The  Instinct  of  Construction.  The  child  likes  to 
put  things  together,  to  make  things,  and  this  instinct  is  oi 
the  highest  value  in  the  lower  grades  in  securing  attention 
to  arithmetical  processes.  The  constructive  instinct  must 
not  be  confused,  however,  with  the  acquired  interest  of 
construction  *  which  is  a  much  higher  product,  and  works 
through  a  series  of  systematic  efforts  toward  the  accom- 
pHshment  of  some  remote  end.  The  pure  primitive  instinct 
is  best  illustrated  by  the  child's  rather  aimless  manipula- 
tion of  blocks  in  the  making  of  whatever  may  be  dictated 
by -momentary  fancy.  It  can  be  turned  to  educative  account 
by  leading  the  pupil  to  count  the  number  of  blocks  that 

^  Cf.  Educative  Process,  pp.  io6  £f. 


156  CLASSROOM    MANAGEMENT 

he  uses  for  this  purpose  or  that,  by  encouraging  com- 
parisons of  different  magnitudes,  and  by  suggesting  pos- 
sible numerical  combinations;  for  example,  "Let  us  make 
a  wall  that  will  be  three  inches  high  and  twelves  inches 
long,'*  using  inch  cubes;  "Make  the  picture  of  a  house 
with  splints,  having  the  house  ten  splints  long  and  one 
half  as  high,  with  three  windows  in  the  side";  etc. 

11.  The  instincts  discussed  above  do  not  exhaust  the 
list  of  those  that  function  during  childhood  and  which 
form  the  basis  for  the  manifold  operations  of  the  first  law. 
They  are,  however,  the  principal  instincts  with  which  the 
school  is  concerned  from  the  standpoint  of  passive  atten- 
tion. In  the  next  chapter,  other  instincts  will  be  discussed 
that  operate  in  a  slightly  different  fashion.  But  it  must  be 
borne  in  mind  that  all  instincts  have  this  in  common :  they 
are  native,  inherited  forces,  forming  the  basis  upon  which 
the  educative  process  must  lay  its  foundations.  Those 
that  have  just  been  discussed  operate  educatively  through 
securing  passive  attention  to  mechanical  repetition.  Those 
that  will  be  discussed  in  the  next  chapter  may  express 
themselves,  it  is  true,  in  attention  of  the  passive  order; 
but  they  are  educationally  important  in  that  they  may  be 
readily  transformed  into  incentives  for  active  attention; 
in  other  words,  the  anticipated  gratification  of  the  instinct 
forms  a  remote  end  toward  which  effort  may  be  directed 
as  a  necessary  condition  of  this  gratification. 

12.  Summary.  The  first  law  is  to  be  used  extensively 
only  in  the  earUest  stages  of  education.  Here  the  teacher's 
first  duty  is  to  provide  conditions  that  will  make  effort 


THE   PROBLEM   OE   ATTENTION  1 57 

attractive.  This  duty  is  partially  fulfilled  by  frequent 
changes  in  the  content  of  the  school  exercises,  by  utiHzing 
the  play  instinct,  by  a  judicious  use  of  intense  and  con- 
trasting stimuU,  and  by  encouraging  the  pupil  to  employ 
his  constructive  instinct  in  an  educative  manner.  These 
means  are  always  in  place  during  the  early  school  years. 
They  may  occasionally  be  employed  in  the  later  stages 
of  instruction,  and  with  abnormally  backward  children 
(feeble-minded  children  and  imbeciles)  it  is  doubtful 
whether  they  can  ever  be  entirely  dispensed  with.  To 
continue  with  them,  however,  in  the  education  of  normal 
children  is  to  run  a  serious  danger  of  arrested  develop- 
ment. 

References.  —  J.  R.  Angell :  Psychology,  New  York,  1905,  ch.  xvi ; 
Irving  King:  Psychology  of  Child  Development,  Chicago,  1903, 
ch.  xiii;  Thomdike:  Principles  of  Teaching,  ch.s.y,yin;  Kirkpatrick: 
Fundamentals  of  Child  Study,  New  York,  1906,  chs.  viii-x;  W.  James: 
Talks  to  Teachers,  New  York,  1902,  ch.  vii. 


CHAPTER  XI 

The  Problem  of  Attention  (Continued)  :  The 
Operation  of  the  Second  Law;  Incentives 

I.  The  essence  of  active  attention  is  concentration  upon 
matters  that  are  not  in  themselves  attractive,  —  that  do 
not  in  themselves  naturally  solicit  attention,  —  for  the 
sake  of  some  desired  end,  the  attainment  of  which 
such  focahzation  will  further.  It  should  be  remembered 
that  active  attention  does  not  preclude  the  operation  of 
instinct;  in  fact,  probably  all  operation  of  active  atten- 
tion is  dependent  primarily  though  indirectly  upon  some 
instinctive  desire.  Instinct  is  the  force  that  makes  the 
idea  of  the  remote  end  effective  in  controlHng  action  along 
a  given  Une  until  one  either  gains  the  end  sought,  or 
lapses  into  secondary  passive  attention  in  which  the  means 
of  attaining  the  end  become  attractive  and  interesting  in 
themselves. 

For  example,  the  pupil  is  attracted  to  bright  colors  because 
of  the  instinctive  impulse  to  attend  to  strong  or  contrasting 
stimuli.  The  end  here  is  immediate,  the  attention  passive. 
On  the  other  hand,  the  pupil  may,  by  effort,  attend  to  a  dull 
lesson,  because  he  does  not  wish  a  fellow-pupil  to  **win  out" 
over  him  in  a  recitation.  The  end  here  is  remote,  but  it  is 
made  effective  by  the  instinct  of  emulation.  Instinct  operates 
in  the  one  case  just  as  clearly  as  in  the  other;  but  in  the  second 

158 


THE   PROBLEM   OF   ATTENTION  1 59 

instance  it  operates  on  a  higher  plane,  because  the  end  has  been 
moved  into  the  future,  a  process  of  ideal  or  imaginative  con- 
struction is  demanded  for  its  envisagement,  and  action  or 
adjustment  must  be  controlled  with  reference  to  the  end 
sought. 

Almost  every  case  of  willed  or  volitional  action  is  similarly 
determined  in  the  last  analysis  by  one  instinct  or  another. 
The  student  at  college  prosecutes  his  studies  industriously,  even 
though  they  are  not  perhaps  always  interesting;  he  is  held  to 
the  task  because  he  does  not  wish  to  let  others  get  the  degree 
when  he  fails  (instinct  of  emulation),  or  because  he  wishes 
to  secure  remunerative  employment  because  of  his  training 
(instinct  of  self-preservation),  or  because  he  wishes  to  avoid  the 
unpleasant  consequences  of  failure  (instinct  of  fear).  Similar 
analyses  could  be  made  of  dominant  motives  in  any  walk  of 
life ;  always,  however,  with  this  proviso :  whenever  the  task 
becomes  attractive  in  itself  and  the  remote  end  is  lost  sight  of 
temporarily,  the  attention  has  passed  over  into  the  secondary 
passive  form.  Thus  the  student,  driven  to  his  work  by  one  of 
these  various  ideals  that  are  supported  in  their  turn  by  funda- 
mental instincts,  becomes  gradually  absorbed  in  his  study  and 
no  longer  thinks  either  of  the  fellow-students  whom  he  is  try- 
ing to  outdo,  of  the  position  that  he  has  hoped  to  obtain,  or 
of  the  unpleasantness  that  may  result  from  failure.  But  when- 
ever this  secondary  passive  attention  lags,  —  whenever  primi- 
tive impulse  again  asserts  its  inherited  right  to  distract,  —  the 
idea,  backed  up  by  its  appropriate  instinct,  must  act  again  as  a 
spur  to  renewed  effort. 

2.  Incentives.  The  idea  of  a  remote  end  toward  which 
effort  is  to  be  organized  is  known  as  an  incentive.  With 
certain  qualifications,  the  problem  of  securing  and  hold- 
ing the  attention  of  pupils  may  be  said  to  be  the  problem 


l6o  CLASSROOM    MANAGEMENT 

of  providing  effective  incentives.  The  first  law  is  legiti- 
mately applied  only  up  to  the  point  where  an  effective 
incentive  can  be  introduced  —  up  to  the  point  where  a 
remote  end  can  be  made  to  dominate  the  pupil's  mind 
and  hold  him  to  whatever  tasks  are  imposed  as  a  con- 
dition of  attaining  this  end. 

This  point  is  approximately  coincident  with  the  birth  of 
what  is  termed  the  capacity  of  the  child  for  reasoning.  Reason- 
ing, in  its  simplest  form,  is  nothing  more  nor  less  than  a  con- 
scious application  of  past  experience  to  a  given  situation. 
Logical  reasoning,  however,  is  more  complicated  in  its  nature. 
It  presupposes  the  ability  to  condense  past  experience  into  con- 
cepts, and  to  manipulate  these  concepts  through  symbols,  — 
usually  words.  An  end  that  is  fairly  remote  in  its  nature  must 
be  held  before  mind  in  a  compact  form  if  it  is  to  be  effective 
over  action,  hence  the  conditions  imposed  by  active  attention 
of  a  high  order  are  quite  similar  to  those  imposed  by  logical 
reasoning.  But  active  attention  is  possible  in  cases  where  the 
experience  has  not  been  condensed  into  concepts,  but  stiD 
functions  concretely.  This  form  of  attention,  however,  is 
directed  to  ends  that  are  not  very  remote.  As  the  pupil  in- 
creases in  the  capacity  to  form  concepts,  therefore  his  capacity 
also  increases  for  holding  in  mind  ends  that  are  further  and 
further  removed  from  the  present  impulse. 

Just  where  this  capacity  is  to  be  attributed  to  the  pupil  in 
school  is  a  matter  of  dispute.  Some  practitioners  would  as- 
sume that  the  child  is  capable  of  governing  his  action  with 
reference  to  remote  ends  immediately  upon  entering  school, 
but  this  is  manifestly  not  in  accord  with  practical  schoolroom 
experience.  It  is  probable,  however,  that,  if  a  beginning  is 
made  with  incentives  that  appeal  to  fairly  immediate  ends,  and 
if  a  gradual  progression  is  insured,  the  pupil  should  be  able  in 


THE   PROBLEM   OF   ATTENTION  l6l 

the  third  or  fourth  grades  to  realize  the  import  of  putting  forth 
effort  during  the  term  in  order  that  he  may  make  a  satisfactory 
grade  at  the  term's  close.  This  also  suggests  the  importance 
of  having  relatively  short  terms  in  the  earlier  years  of  the 
elementary  school. 

3.  Positive  and  Negative  Incentives}  A  remote  end 
may  make  either  a  positive  or  a  negative  appeal  to  one's 
desires.  In  the  former  case,  action  is  governed  and 
directed  for  the  purpose  of  enjoying  some  pleasant  conse- 
quences; in  the  latter  case,  action  is  controlled  for  the 
purpose  of  avoiding  some  unpleasant  consequences.  In 
other  words,  incentives  may  be  divided  into  (i)  those  that 
depend  for  their  efficacy  upon  the  hope  of  a  reward,  and 
(2)  those  that  depend  upon  fear  of  punishment.  Needless 
to  say,  one  and  the  same  object  sought  may  make  its 
appeal  either  from  the  positive  or  negative  side.     Further 

*  Whitens  Classification  of  Incentives.  In  his  treatise  on  school  man- 
agement, Mr.  White  makes  a  distinction  between  "natural"  and  "artifi- 
cial" incentives.  Under  the  former  head,  he  includes  those  incentives 
that  grow  "naturally"  out  of  the  effort  involved.  Thus  the  perception 
of  a  distinct  need  for  knowing  arithmetic  would  be  the  natural  incentive 
for  studying  and  mastering  arithmetic.  These  natural  incentives  are,  of 
course,  the  most  effective  whenever  it  is  possible  to  employ  them.  It  is 
one  of  the  peculiar  duties  of  education,  however,  to  impart  knowledge  at 
a  period  in  the  individual's  life  when  he  is  unable  to  see  very  far  ahead. 
The  knowledge  that  is  imparted,  on  the  other  hand,  generally  owes  its 
value  to  the  fact  that  it  will  be  useful  in  adult  life.  For  this  reason 
natural  incentives  can  be  employed  very  infrequently.  Mr.  White's 
theory  is  also  defective  in  that  many  of  the  incentives  that  he  classes  as 
"natural"  are  really  "artificial"  by  his  own  definition,  while  others  are 
not  incentives  at  all,  but  rather  acquired  interests  that  owe  their  eflSdency 
to  the  operation  of  the  third  law.  When,  for  example,  he  speaks  of  the 
love  of  knowledge  as  an  incentive,  this  is  either  an  acquired  interest  or  an 
ideal  of  a  very  elaborate  type. 


1 62  CLASSROOM    MANAGEMENT 

than  this,  one  and  the  same  object  may  appeal  to  the  same 
individual  now  from  this  and  now  from  that  point  of  view. 
The  pupil  may  be  impelled  to  learn  a  dull  lesson  in  hope 
of  "getting  ahead"  of  his  fellow-pupils,  or  he  may  learn 
the  same  lesson  from  fear  that  his  fellow-pupils  may  "get 
ahead"  of  him,  and  the  consciousness  of  the  end  to  be 
gained  may  alternate  rapidly  between  these  two  desires. 
Back  of  every  hope  there  is  a  complementary  fear,  and 
back  of  every  fear,  a  complementary  hope. 

4.  These  facts  involve  one  of  the  most  important  prac- 
tical principles  in  school  management.  In  generalj  incen- 
tives should  appeal  to  the  pupil  from  the  positive  rather  than 
from  the  negative  point  of  view.  This  principle  depends 
for  its  validity,  not  upon  mere  sentiment  alone,  but  upon 
the  rigid  requirements  of  economy.  It  is  only  a  practical 
expression  of  the  well-known  psychological  law  that  de- 
pression chokes  up  the  channels  of  energy,  while  hope  and 
buoyancy  tend  to  Hberate  energy  and  make  it  available. 
It  is  the  verdict  of  experience  that  one  can  put  forth  more 
energy  and  do  more  effective  work  if  the  confidence  of 
success  overbalances  the  fear  of  failure. 

This  general  rule  is  certainly  subject  to  some  qualifications. 
The  fear  that  amounts  to  desperation  sometimes  impels  one 
to  put  forth  almost  superhuman  effort.  But,  in  this  case,  it  is 
seriously  to  be  doubted  whether  the  so-called  "fear"  of  despera- 
tion is  really  deserving  of  that  name.  Its  keynote  is  exhilara- 
tion rather  than  depression;  it  has  passed  beyond  the  pale  of 
a  distinctly  unpleasant  emotion,  and  so  should  be  characterized 
by  another  and  more  appropriate  term.  Recent  theories  of 
emotion  advanced  by  competent  psychologists  are  quite  in 


THE   PROBLEM  OF  ATTENTION  1 63 

accord  with  this  view.^  In  general,  then,  fear  expresses  itself 
in  less  violent  forms,  —  moodiness,  lack  of  confidence,  dissatis- 
faction with  one's  self,  etc.,  —  and  these  are  all  depressing 
agencies. 

5.  It  is  not  to  be  concluded,  however,  that  the  negative 
incentives  have  no  place  in  education.  In  extreme  cases, 
where  all  other  measures  appear  to  be  futile,  the  fear  of 
failure,  or  of  physical  pain,  or  of  the  loss  of  a  privilege, 
may  be  the  only  available  means  of  possible -redemption, 
and  as  such  its  employment  is  undoubtedly  justified.  It 
is  safe  to  lay  down  the  rule,  however,  that,  if  fear  is  stimu- 
lated, it  should  be  limited  to  individual  cases.  In  other 
words,  the  great  majority  of  pupils  will  not  need  an  extreme 
incentive,  and  to  use  the  stimulus  of  fear  upon  an  entire 
class  is  to  run  the  risk  of  needless  worry  on  the  part  of 
pupils  who  do  not  need  to  worry,  and  to  whom,  perhaps, 
worry  would  involve  a  nervous  strain  that  would  quite 
discount  any  positive  benefits  to  be  derived.  This  limi- 
tation in  mind,  we  may  pass  to  the  specific  consideration 
of  the  fear  incentives. 

6.  Incentives  in  which  the  Predominant  Appeal  is 
Negative.  Under  this  head  are  to  be  included,  obviously, 
all  school  practices  that  inflict  punishment  for  failure  to 
perform  some  school  task.  In  Chapter  VIII,  punish- 
ments were  discussed,  but  in  another  connection,  —  namely, 
as  means  of  securing  order  in  the  classroom.  The  point 
of  departure  there  was  the  necessity  for  preserving  con- 

*  For  example,  J.  R.  Angell :  Psychology,  New  York,  1905,  pp. 
328  S. 


164  CLASSROOM    MANAGEMENT 

ditions  favorable  to  the  welfare  of  the  class  as  a  whole. 
In  the  present  connection  the  fear  of  punishment  as  an 
incentive  for  individual  effort  is  the  point  at  issue.  In 
other  words,  is  it  legitimate  or  wise  to  employ  what  we 
have  termed  penalties  not  only  for  offenses  against  disci- 
pline, but  also  for  failure  on  the  part  of  individual  pupils 
to  concentrate  upon  the  tasks  required  of  them,  even 
though  this  lack  of  concentration  does  not  interfere  with 
the  rights  of  others? 

7.  Reverting  to  the  principles  established  in  the  preced- 
ing discussion,  it  will  be  recalled  that  undesirable  impulses 
tend  to  be  inhibited  if  they  are  closely  associated  with 
painful  consequences.  The  pain-reaction  is  justified  in 
offenses  against  discipHne,  because  the  impulses  that  are 
checked  are,  in  general,  unsocial  impulses  that  should 
always  be  inhibited.  Applying  this  principle  to  the  use 
of  pain  stimuU  as  incentives  to  effort,  it  is  clear  that  the 
justification  or  condemnation  of  such  a  poKcy  depends 
primarily  upon  what  association  is  made.  If  the  pupil 
always  connects  lack  of  application,  mind- wandering,  pro- 
crastination, and  similar  factors,  with  painful  consequences, 
it  is  clear  that  he  will  tend  to  curtail  the  operation  of  these 
factors  in  his  school  Hfe.  If,  on  the  contrary,  the  associa- 
tion is  between  the  pain  stimulus  and  arithmetic  or  spell- 
ing or  geography,  it  is  clear  that  the  penalties  inflicted 
will  defeat  their  own  purpose  in  a  most  disastrous  fashion. 

The  two  forms  of  punishment  most  commonly  employed 
to  incite  pupils  to  greater  effort  are :  (a)  corporal  punish- 
ment, and  {h)  "scoldings."    There  are  very  few  teachers, 


THE  PROBLEM  OF  ATTENTION  1 6$ 

probably,  who  now  use  corporal  punishment  as  an  incen- 
tive to  effort,  and  the  prevailing  practice  may,  in  this 
instance  at  least,  be  accepted  as  in  harmony  with  funda- 
mental principles.  For  a  child  to  "learn  his  lessons" 
simply  because  he  fears  the  pain  or  physical  punishment 
in  case  the  lessons  are  not  learned  means  that  he  is  as- 
similating knowledge  with  reference  to  a  very  primitive 
need.  Whether  this  fact  will,  as  Professor  Dewey  ^  im- 
plies, absolutely  prevent  the  knowledge  gained  in  this  way 
from  being  appHed  to  the  situations  of  Hf e,  is  to  be  doubted ; 
but  it  is  clear  that  such  assimilation  will  be  at  least  uneco- 
nomical as  compared  with  that  which  proceeds  from  a 
higher  purpose.  On  the  other  hand,  if  a  pupil  can  be  stim- 
ulated to  effort  in  no  other  way,  it  is  far  better  that  his  tasks 
be  performed,  even  inadequately,  through  the  stimulus  of 
physical  pain  than  that  he  be  permitted  to  grow  up  in 
ignorance.  Especially  would  physical  stimulus  be  justi- 
fied if  the  lack  of  application  on  the  part  of  an  individual 
pupil  interfered  with  the  progress  of  the  class  as  a  whole. 
8.  In  extreme  cases,  where  the  fear  of  pain  is  needed  as 
a  stimulus,  a  temperate  use  of  corporal  punishment  is 
probably  to  be  preferred  to  the  employment  of  the  more 
common  penalty,  —  "scolding."  And  yet  this  is  not  to 
say  that  there  is  no  place  for  the  latter  stimulus.  A  sting- 
ing rebuke  may  temporarily  depress  a  delinquent  pupil, 
and  it  may  even  rankle  in  his  memory  for  an  indefinite 
period,  but  it  is  sometimes  the  only  thing  that  will  stir  him 

*  J.  Dewey:   The  Child  and  the  Curriculum,  p.  38;  cited  by  Thom- 
dike:  Principles  of  Teaching,  p.  56. 


1 66  CLASSROOM    MANAGEMENT 

to  effort.  One  general  principle,  however,  certainly  con- 
ditions the  efficiency  of  this  measure:  "Scoldings"  are 
effective  in  inverse  proportion  to  the  frequency  with  which 
they  are  employed.  Rebukes  lose  their  "edge"  far  more 
quickly  than  corporal  punishment.  The  teacher  who 
continually  "nags"  his  pupils  will  find  that  the  good 
results  will  be  less  and  less  noticeable  as  the  nagging 
becomes  more  and  more  frequent.  A  quiet  rebuke,  ad- 
ministered without  passion  or  rage,  may  be  extremely 
effective  if  it  breaks  in  upon  a  long  period  of  harmony 
and  good-will,  but  there  is  nothing  to  which  a  pupil  will 
more  quickly  become  callous  if  the  measure  is  repeated 
frequently. 

The  sin  of  nagging  is  the  most  common  vice  of  the  woman 
teacher,  and  in  the  popular  mind  it  is  undoubtedly  the  char- 
acteristic sui  generis  of  the  traditional  "schoolma'am."  So 
easily  does  the  nagging  proclivity  become  a  habit,  and  so 
disastrous  are  its  effects,  not  only  upon  the  discipline  of  the 
school,  but  also  upon  the  temperament  and  social  qualities  of 
the  teacher  who  indulges  it,  that  every  woman  who  goes  into 
the  schoolroom  should  watch  herself  closely  to  prevent  the 
genesis  of  the  practice. 

9.  To  summarize:  Attention  cannot  be  economically 
or  adequately  secured  by  introducing  the  fear  of  punish- 
ment as  an  incentive.  Nevertheless  there  are  very  ex- 
ceptional cases  where  the  employment  of  such  an  incen- 
tive is  the  only  measure  that  will  have  any  effect  upon  the 
pupil.  In  such  extreme  cases,  corporal  punishment  is 
probably  to  be  preferred  to  "scolding,"  although  there 


THE   PROBLEM   OF   ATTENTION  167 

are  occasions  when  rebukes  will  stimulate  pupils  to  greater 
activity.  The  utmost  care,  however,  is  required  in  em- 
ploying either  of  these  two  forms  of  stimulation,  and  it 
is  perhaps  the  safest  policy  for  the  beginning  teacher  to 
avoid  them  entirely  until  he  feels  absolutely  certain  that  he 
can  use  them  effectively  and  without  working  an  injury. 
The  use  of  corporal  punishment  as  an  incentive  and  its 
use  as  a  penalty  for  breaches  of  discipline  are  not  to  be 
confused  with  one  another.  The  latter  may  be  justified 
where  the  former  would  be  fatal. 

Reference.  —  White :  School  Management,  pp.  185-188. 


CHAPTER  Xn 

The  Problem  of  Attention  (Continued)  ;  Application 
OF  the  Second  Law  through  Positive  Incentives 

I.  The  most  important  applications  of  the  second  law 
imply  the  hope  of  reward  as  an  incentive  to  effort.  It 
will  be  recalled  that  the  interposition  of  a  remote  end  as 
an  object  to  work  for  does  not  preclude  the  operation  of 
instinct.  It  simply  postpones  the  satisfaction  or  gratifi- 
cation of  an  instinctive  desire,  using  the  desire  as  a  means 
of  stimulating  effort  toward  its  gratification.  When  in- 
stinctive interests  are  thus  made  incentives  to  active  atten- 
tion, they  are  transformed  through  the  process,  becoming 
what  may  be  termed  ''acquired  interests."  Such  interests 
may,  in  course  of  time,  be  so  far  removed  from  the  original 
instinct  that  all  trace  of  the  latter  seems  to  have  disappeared ; 
but  careful  search  will  always  discover  a  core  of  instinct 
at  the  center  of  every  acquired  interest,  no  matter  how 
elaborately  the  latter  may  have  become  complicated  in  its 
development. 

It  would  follow  from  this  that  the  remote  ends  which 
are  used  as  incentives  to  effort  must,  in  the  early  stages  of 
education,  appeal  to  one  or  another  of  the  primitive  in- 
stincts, and  that  this  appeal  must  be  direct  and  unequivo- 
cal if  the  incentive  is  to  function  effectively.  Incentives 
will  accordingly  be  "high"  or  "low"  as  they  appeal  to  an 

-68 


THE   PROBLEM   OF   ATTENTION  1 69 

acquired  interest  far  removed  from  a  primitive  instinct, 
or  to  a  primitive  interest  closely  correlated  with  a  primitive 
instinct.  Education  must  manifestly  begin  with  incentives 
of  the  lower  orders  and  pass  to  those  of  the  higher  orders ; 
but,  even  under  the  most  favorable  conditions,  this  transi- 
tion will  be  but  gradual. 

2.  The  following  discussion  will  consider  incentives  in 
the  ascending  order  of  merit,  employing  the  standard  set 
forth  above.  The  accompan3dng  outline  will  give  a  gen- 
eral view  of  the  treatment:  — 

(a)  Incentives  that  make  a  positive  appeal  to  the  instinct  of 

emulation, 
(i)  Competitive  prizes  of  intrinsic  value. 

(2)  Competitive  prizes  not  intrinsically  valuable. 

(3)  Privileges. 

(4)  Immunities. 

(5)  Display  of  pupils'  work. 

(6)  Grades,  marks,  and  promotions. 

(b)  Incentives  that  make  a  positive  appeal  to  the  social 

instincts, 
(i)  Praise,  commendation,  and  adulation. 
(2)  Pupils'  pride  in  the  good  name  of  the  school. 

(c)  Ideals  as  incentives. 

3.  (a)  Incentives  that  make  a  Positive  Appeal  to  the 
Instinct  of  Emulation,  (i)  Competitive  Prizes  oj  Intrinsic 
Value.  To  offer  material  prizes  as  incentives  to  effort  is 
generally  recognized  by  authorities  upon  school  manage- 
ment as  bad  practice.  It  is  contended  that  such  prizes  ap- 
peal only  to  a  very  few  pupils,  who  are,  in  general,  those 
that  need  incentives  the  least ;  that  the  prize  system  tends 


lyo  CLASSROOM    MANAGEMENT 

to  develop  unduly  the  selfish  instincts,  often  giving  rise 
among  the  brighter  pupils  (who  alone  stand  a  chance  of 
securing  the  prize)  to  such  perverted  forms  of  the  property 
instinct  as  avarice  and  cupidity;  that,  even  when  rivalry 
exists,  such  rivalry  is  usually  between  two  or  three  of  the 
brighter  pupils,  and  that  this  condition  greatly  augments 
the  danger  that  healthy  emulation  will  degenerate  into 
spite  and  jealousy;  and  finally  that  the  material  prize 
offers  no  inducement  that  could  not  just  as  well  be  involved 
in  an  immaterial  reward.  Some  authorities^  maintain  that 
prizes  awarded  to  all  who  reach  a  certain  grade  rather  than 
to  one  who  gets  the  highest  may  be  legitimately  employed. 
This  is  certainly  an  improvement  on  the  traditional 
prize  system,  but  still  fails  to  meet  the  second  objection. 
4.  (2)  Competitive  Prizes  not  intrinsically  Valuable. 
Among  the  commonly  employed  incentives  of  this  class 
are  merit  cards,  diplomas,  badges,  buttons,  medals,  etc. 
Where  only  a  "first"  prize  of  this  sort  is  offered  for  com- 
petition, many  of  the  disadvantages  involved  in  material 
prizes  will  result.  Competition  is  narrowed  to  a  few 
bright  pupils,  while  the  duller  pupils,  needing  incentives, 
are  stimulated  either  not  at  all  or  in  a  negative  direction, 
becoming  so  depressed,  perhaps,  by  the  ^  fact  of  their 
own  inefficiency  that  they  put  forth  less  effort  than  they 
would  otherwise.  Such  incentives  also  tend  to  develop 
certain  traits  of  character  in  the  very  bright  pupils  that  are 
extremely  undesirable,  —  conceit,  priggishness,  etc.    While 

»  For  example,  S.  T.  Button:  School  Management,  New  York,  1904, 
pp.  107  f. 


/^ 


THE  PROBLEM  OF  ATTENTION  171 

the  system  is  not  so  seriously  to  be  condemned  as  the  prac- 
tice of  offering  material  prizes,  it  is  still  to  be  looked  upon 
with  a  degree  of  suspicion,  and  to  be  resorted  to  only 
under  exceptional  conditions.  It  is  safe  to  say  that  a 
poUcy  of  providing  penalties  for  poor  work  is  far  better 
and  more  effective  than  the  poHcy  of  offering  such  prizes 
as  have  already  been  mentioned  for  good  work.  That  is, 
the  appeal  would  reach  and  stimulate  a  larger  number 
of  pupils. 

5.  (3)  Immunities.  In  general,  the  granting  of  holidays 
and  the  exemption  of  pupils  from  examinations  are  to  be 
considered  as  bad  practice.  The  granting  of  holidays  is 
less  objectionable  than  exemption  from  examinations,  but 
it  is  disadvantageous  in  that  it  places  a  regular  school 
duty  in  a  bad  Hght  by  making  of  it  a  punishment.  Under 
a  strict  interpretation  of  the  laws  of  many  states,  the 
practice  would  probably  be  illegal. 

The  very  common  practice  of  exempting  pupils  from 
examinations  in  case  they  reach  a  certain  grade  or  "pass- 
ing mark"  in  the  daily  work  is  open  to  serious  objection 
for  two  reasons:  (a)  it  places  the  examination  under  a 
stigma  by  implying  that  it  is  a  punishment ;  (b)  it  deprives 
pupils  of  the  privilege  of  taking  the  examination:  this 
may  not  appeal  to  them  as  a  privilege,  but  if  the  conten- 
tion that  the  examination  is  one  of  the  most  valuable  parts 
of  the  educative  process  is  vaUd,*  it  is  certainly  imjust  to 
deprive  the  benefits  of  this  exercise  to  the  very  pupils  who 
would  profit  by  it  in  the  highest  measure. 

*  Cf.  The  Educative  Process^  ch.  xxii. 


172  CLASSROOM    MANAGEMENT 

6.  (4)  Privileges.  Among  the  privileges  that  are  com- 
monly employed  as  incentives  are  monitorial  positions, 
favored  locations  in  seating,  high  rank  upon  a  "roll  of 
honor,"  etc.  The  general  rule  that  should  govern  the 
use  of  these  incentives  is  this:  Privileges  that  bring  con- 
stantly  before  the  poorer  pupils  the  consciousness  of  their 
inferiority  should  be  avoided;  the  depressing  influence 
in  such  cases  far  overbalances  any  advantage  that  the 
system  may  possess.  This  appHes  principally  to  the  seat- 
ing of  pupils. 

In  the  case  of  monitorial  positions  as  rewards  for  effort, 
the  situation  is  somewhat  different.  The  employment  is 
only  for  temporary  periods  during  the  day,  the  number  of 
monitors  to  be  employed  is  generally  large  enough  to 
supply  places  for  most  of  the  pupils,  and  the  system  puts 
a  premium  upon  service,  making  it  a  privilege  instead  of 
a  penalty.  In  the  lower  grades  this  incentive  is  among 
the  best  of  those  that  appeal  to  the  instinct  of  emulation. 
Its  main  disadvantage  lies  in  the  fact  that  monitors  must 
be  changed  frequently  if  the  privilege  is  to  be  effective. 
This  involves  the  ** breaking  in"  and  training  of  pupils 
for  new  duties,  thus  distracting  somewhat  from  the  eco- 
nomical operation  of  the  school  machinery. 

A  "roll  of  honor"  is  permissible  if  it  is  not  constantly 
in  evidence.  All  devices  of  this  sort  must  be  used  tem- 
perately and  not  permitted  to  become  the  be-all  and  end- 
all  of  the  pupil's  existence.  Too  often  the  roll  of  honor 
becomes  this  in  the  eyes  of  the  pupils  whose  names  are 
upon  it,  while  with  the  less  industrious  (or  the  less  fortu- 


THE   PROBLEM  OF  ATTENTION  1 73 

nate)  it  becomes  a  list  of  the  "goody-goodies/'  —  a  type 
of  pupil  that  an  overplus  of  "fol-de-rol"  tends  to  develop. 

7.  (5)  Exhibition  of  Pupils^  Work.  This  incentive  is 
coming  into  very  general  use  in  the  better  schools.  It 
provides  a  means  of  gratifying  the  instinct  of  emulation 
without  involving  many  of  the  dangers  inherent  in  the 
more  artificial  devices  discussed  above.  It  also  tends, 
when  handled  carefully,  to  arouse  in  the  pupils  a  sense 
of  pride  in  the  work  of  the  school  as  a  whole. 

The  exhibition  of  work,  however,  involves  some  marked 
dangers  that  must  not  be  overlooked  or  minimized.  Chief 
among  these  is  the  undue  emphasis  that  it  places  upon  form 
as  contrasted  with  content.  Where  work  is  suspended 
upon  the  wall  in  long  rows,  —  essays,  examination  papers, 
drawings,  etc.,  —  it  is  the  total  effect  of  the  display  that 
counts,  not  the  individual  merit  of  any  one  paper,  and  it 
is  the  total  effect  in  artistic  appearance  rather  than  in  the 
intrinsic  worth  of  the  composition  or  the  examination  as 
revealing  the  thought  of  the  pupil.  Under  these  condi- 
tions it  is  the  pupils  who  produce  the  neatest  work  that 
are  singled  out  for  the  highest  honors,  and  these  are  not 
always  the  pupils  who  do  the  best  work  from  the  stand- 
point of  thought  and  content.  Again,  the  exhibition  of 
work  is  apt  to  overemphasize  written  work  at  the  expense 
of  oral  work  —  a  sin  which  the  public  school  commits  far 
too  frequently  in  other  ways  than  this.  Oral  expression 
is  vastly  more  important  than  written  expression,  and  the 
energies  of  the  school  should  be  devoted  toward  its  train- 
ing far  more  strenuously  than  is  now  the  case.     If,  how- 


174  CLASSROOM    MANAGEMENT 

ever,  written  work  becomes  the  standard  of  efficiency,  this 
reform  will  receive  a  serious  setback.^  Under  these  quah- 
fications,  the  exhibition  of  work  may  be  recommended  as 
a  safe  and  effective  incentive.^ 

8.  (6)  Grades,  Marks,  and  Promotions,  These  devices 
occupy  a  middle  position  in  that  they  make  their  appeal  in 
part  to  the  instinct  of  emulation  and  in  part  to  the  social 
instinct.  It  is  probable  that  the  most  effective  appeal  is 
made  from  the  latter  standpoint,  at  least  in  the  higher 
grades.  With  pupils  in  the  adolescent  period  and  some- 
what earlier,  the  inducement  to  effort  that  comes  from 
hope  of  promotion  or  from  fear  of  retroversion  owes  its 
force  largely  to  an  instinctive  desire  to  be  with  one's  fel- 
lows —  to  remain  an  integral  part  of  the  class  with  which 
one  has  been  associated.  The  desire  to  obtain  a  high 
standing,  while  often  an  expression  of  the  instinct  of  emu- 
lation, is  sometimes  also  due  to  the  desire  to  be  *'with 
the  crowd,"  —  a  desire  which  is  negatively  expressed  by 
the  instinctive  aversion  toward  abnormahty  —  toward  a 
noticeable  differentiation  from  the  "crowd."  In  what- 
ever class  these  incentives  are  to  be  placed,  however,  every 
teacher  (and  every  pupil)  will  testify  as  to  their  efficiency 
in  stimulating  effort. 

9.  There  is  a  tendency  ^  at  the  present  time  to  criticise 
the  employment  of  these  devices,  especially  in  the  elemen- 

*  Cf.  an  excellent  discussion  of  this  matter  in  P.  Chubb:  The  Teach- 
ing of  English,  New  York,  1903,  pp.  106  fif. 

'  For  valuable  suggestions  on  this  topic,  cf.  J.  Taylor:  Class  Manage-^ 
ment,  New  York,  1903,  pp.  95  ff. 

•  Cf.  Dutton,  op.  cit.,  pp.  100  f. 


THE   PROBLEM  OF  AITENTION  1 75 

taiy  school.  The  evil  effects  of  worry,  among  pupils  of 
nervous  temperament,  are  frequently  urged  against  the 
promotion  and  marking  system.  It  is  also  maintained 
that  promotion,  in  the  school  use  of  the  term,  has  nothing 
in  common  with  any  condition  to  be  met  in  real  life. 
The  great  men  who  were  dullards  in  school  are  pointed 
out  as  evidence  that  scholastic  standards  and  the  standards 
of  adult  society  in  measuring  efficiency  are  vastly  different. 
For  these  and  other  reasons  the  formaHty  and  ceremony 
involved  in  ''passing"  from  grade  to  grade  have,  in  many 
cases,  been  dispensed  with,  and  pupils  are  advanced  with 
httle  reference  to  their  attainments  or  their  abihty  to  do 
the  work  required  of  the  grade  to  which  they  are  sent. 
This  "reform"  has,  of  course,  gone  hand  in  hand  with 
the  abolition  of  final  examinations  in  the  elementary 
school. 

While  the  arguments  against  a  rigid  system  of  grading 
and  promotion  carry  a  certain  measure  of  conviction,  they 
involve  several  pronounced  fallacies.  If  the  work  of  the 
school  is  not  similar  to  the  work  of  life,  the  fact  surely 
offers  no  excuse  for  doing  it  in  a  slip-shod  fashion,  and 
experience  teaches  that  it  will  be  done  in  a  sHp-shod 
fashion,  unless  definite  standards  are  set  up  and  rigor- 
ously adhered  to.  That  all  or  even  an  appreciable  pro- 
portion of  the  great  men  of  to-day  were  dull  pupils  at 
school  is  a  statement  that  must  be  proved  by  statistics  of 
an  accurate  sort  before  it  can  be  used  as  a  basis  for  re- 
organizing the  school  system.  Aside  from  a  few  excep- 
tional cases  that  attract  notice  purely  because  of  their 


176  CLASSROOM    MANAGEMENT 

exceptional  nature,  whatever  evidence  is  now  available 
seems  to  point  quite  in  the  opposite  direction.  That 
children  sometimes  worry  needlessly  about  promotion  is 
doubtless  true.  That  this  condition  ever  reaches  the 
extraordinary  dimensions  attributed  to  it  by  some  au- 
thorities is  gravely  to  be  doubted  —  at  least  until  proofs 
are  forthcoming.  Some  worry  is  bound  to  be  involved 
in  carrying  out  any  task  or  duty  that  is  really  worth  while; 
in  fact,  the  worry  is  sometimes  directly  proportional  to  the 
worth.  On  the  other  hand,  to  take  away  the  formality  of 
"passing"  is  not  only  to  ''let  down  the  bars"  and  encourage 
low  standards  or  no  standards  at  all,  but  it  is  also  to  deprive 
the  teacher  of  one  of  the  most  powerful  incentives  that  he 
can  command. 

10.  But  even  if  it  is  decided  that  the  grading  of  pupils 
and  the  formalities  incident  to  promotion  are  legitimate 
incentives,  the  dangers  pointed  out  above  are  real  dangers, 
and  pains  must  be  taken  to  counteract  them,  or,  at  least, 
to  mitigate  their  evil  influences.  "Passing"  can  easily 
be  made  altogether  too  important  a  thing  in  the  pupils' 
eyes.  After  all,  it  is  only  a  device,  not  an  end  in  itself, 
and  the  moment  that  it  becomes  an  end  in  itself,  it  is  in  a 
fair  way  to  defeat  its  own  purposes.  It  is  certainly  bad 
practice  to  keep  the  fear  of  failure  continually  before  the 
pupils'  mind.  It  is  equally  bad  practice  to  encourage 
the  pupil  into  the  beHef  that  "making  the  grade"  should 
be  his  sole  and  only  end  in  life.  Like  all  other  devices, 
promotion,  considered  either  from  a  positive  or  from  a 
negative  standpoint,  —  either  as  hope  or  fear,  —  should 


THE  PROBLEM  OF  ATTENTION         1 77 

be  used  as  a  spur  to  effort  only  when  a  spur  is  needed^  and 
when  some  more  worthy  incentive  fails  to  operate.  When- 
ever a  pupil  falls  behind  in  his  work,  and  fails  to  respond  to 
the  suggestions  and  hints  of  the  teacher,  it  is  but  justice 
to  him  that  he  be  informed  of  the  questionable  nature  of 
his  standing  and  of  the  likehhood  that,  unless  greater  effort 
is  forthcoming,  failure  or  retroversion  to  a  lower  grade 
will  result. 

An  occasional  retroversion  in  mid-term  may  prove  a  valuable 
and  effective  stimulus  to  other  less  weak  but  still  doubtful  cases. 
This  should  not  be  commonly  resorted  to,  of  course,  because  of 
the  effect  upon  the  penalized  pupil ;  but  in  cases  where  pupils 
are  passed  conditionally,  the  condition  should  be  fulfilled  to 
the  letter  if  it  is  to  mean  anything  in  the  eyes  of  the  pupils. 
Too  often,  conditioned  pupils  are  permitted  to  remain  in  the 
advanced  grade,  although  their  work  falls  very  far  below  the 
standard.  This  is  a  most  reprehensible  form  of  "soft  peda- 
gogy-" 

II.  Grades  and  marks  are  indispensable  factors  in  the 
mechanics  of  grading  and  promotion.  Some  authorities 
disapprove  of  the  practice  of  letting  pupils  know  their 
grades  until  the  end  of  the  term,  and  even  then,  it  is  recom- 
mended, the  pupil  should  simply  be  recorded  as  "passed" 
or  "failed"  or  "conditioned."  Certainly  there  is  much 
to  be  said  against  the  grading  system,  and  yet,  like  the 
system  of  promotions  of  which  it  is  only  one  phase,  the 
difficulties  lie  mainly  in  its  abuse.  Here  as  elsewhere  it 
is  possible  to  take  a  middle  course,  taking  advantage  of 
whatever  efficiency  the  system  may  possess  in  stimulating 


178  CLASSROOM    MANAGEMENT 

to  greater  effort,  and  still  stopping  far  short  of  making 
marks  an  end  in  themselves.  A  monthly  statement  of 
pupils*  standings,  sent  to  the  parents,  is  one  of  the  best 
methods  of  securing  the  effective  cooperation  of  home  and 
school.  It  serves  as  a  valuable  reference  in  case,  at  the 
end  of  the  term,  there  is  any  difficulty  about  failure  to 
promote.  Needless  to  say,  great  care  must  be  taken  to 
make  these  reports  accurate  indices  of  the  pupils'  work. 
While  elaborate  bookkeeping  should  be  avoided,  it  is  a 
simple  matter  to  record  at  the  close  of  each  day  a  numerical 
estimate  of  each  pupil's  work  in  different  subjects.  These 
estimates  can  be  averaged  at  the  end  of  the  month.  For 
the  report  cards,  letters  are  to  be  preferred  to  numerical 
estimates,  because  of  the  ease  with  which  one  figure's  dif- 
ference may  change  a  pupil's  fate,  and  the  difficulty  of 
satisfying  both  parents  and  pupils  that  John,  whose  grade 
is  74,  should  be  kept  back ;  while  James,  whose  grade  is 
76,  may  be  sent  on. 

The  writers  upon  school  management  are  not  inclined  to 
admit  that  any  incentive  having  its  basis  in  the  instinct  of  emu- 
lation is  justified,  except  in  so  far  as  the  operation  of  the  incen- 
tive does  not  involve  the  degradation  of  those  who  do  not  suc- 
ceed. Professor  Seeley's  discussion  *  of  the  matter  is  typical : 
"As  emulation  is  a  natural  instinct,  it  can  be  used  in  the  school 
without  evil  effects.  The  principle  governing  its  use  should  be 
excelling  without  degrading  others.  ...  A  child  reads  a  para- 
graph. '  Who  will  try  to  read  it  better  ? '  asks  the  teacher,  and 
many  hands  will  be  raised  in  generous  and  ambitious  rivalry. 
Children  are  invited  to  do  their  best  in  a  written  exercise,  and 

'  L.  Seeley:  A  New  School  Management^  New  York,  1903,  pp.  172  ff. 


THE  PROBLEM  OF  ATTENTION  1 79 

the  teacher  selects  the  best  and  commends  it.  Rapid  and  neat 
work  in  number  is  called  for,  and  the  successful  pupil  is  praised. 
.  .  .  Such  rivalry  is  healthful,  generous,  and  inspiring."  It 
is  diflGicult  to  see  that  these  recommendations  remove  the  initial 
difficulty.  The  very  question,  "Who  will  read  this  better?" 
implies  that  the  pupil  who  has  just  read  must  take  a  low  rank. 
In  fact,  emulation  must  involve  this  factor  if  it  is  to  be  emula- 
tion. 

The  same  criticism  could  be  made  of  the  defense  of  emula- 
tion presented  by  the  Jesuit  father,  Robert  Schwickerath.*  In 
mentioning  the  strictures  that  have  been  passed  upon  the  Jesuit 
system  of  education  because  of  its  emphasis  of  emulation,  he 
says:  "That  these  exercises  were  by  no  means  intended  to 
develop  the  bad  emulation,  or  false  self-love  in  the  young,  is 
evident ;  this  would  have  been  little  to  the  purpose  with  religious 
teachers.  .  .  .  What  is  appealed  to,  is  the  spirit  of  good  and 
noble  emulation,  —  honesta  cemulatio,  as  the  Ratio  says,  — 
and  that  by  a  world  of  industry  which  spurs  young  students 
on  to  excellence  in  whatever  they  undertake,  and  rewards  the 
development  of  natural  energies  with  the  natural  luxury  of 
confessedly  doing  well.  This  makes  the  boys  feel  happy  in 
having  done  well,  however  little  they  enjoyed  the  labor  before, 
and  will  rouse  them  to  new  exertions.  Gradually  they  may 
then  be  led  to  higher  motives  in  their  endeavors." 

It  must  be  confessed  that  the  distinction  between  good  and 
bad  emulation  is  not  very  clear  from  this  discussion.  At  any 
rate,  "the  natural  luxury  of  doing  well"  has  very  Httle  affinity 
to  emulation  as  an  instinct.  Much  more  to  the  point  is  the 
same  author's  positive  justification  of  the  Jesuit  practice,  lay- 
ing aside  all  sentimental  distinctions  that  fail  to  distinguish: 
"Is  it  probable  that  j^oung  pupils  will  readily  be  diligent,  when 
told  that  they  ought  to  do  their  work  ?    Kant's  teaching  of  the 

*  R.  Schwickerath :  Jesuit  Education,  St.  Louis,  1903,  p.  512. 


l8o  CLASSROOM    MANAGEMENT 

autonomy  of  the  human  reason  is  not  only  deficient,  but  posi* 
tively  erroneous;  but  least  of  all  will  the  rule,  you  ought  he- 
cause  reason  tells  you  so,  have  any  effect  on  the  young."  ^ 

In  the  problem  of  emulation  we  have  an  example  of  that 
condition  which  has  recurred  so  frequently  in  our  previous  dis- 
cussions, and  which  sometimes  makes  the  entire  process  of 
education  appear  to  be  a  huge  paradox.  Education,  like  civili- 
zation, is  an  artificial  process,  —  a  compromise  between  the 
brutal  and  the  human,  a  readjustment  from  primitive  to  social 
conditions.  The  teacher  cannot  always  choose  the  methods  of 
this  readjustment.  The  cloth  must  be  cut  to  fit  the  wearer, 
not  the  tailor.  That  the  instinct  of  emulation  sometimes 
works  evil  in  the  school  does  not  in  itself  condemn  it;  the  evil 
must  be  measured  up  against  the  good.  Success  for  one  may 
mean  failure  —  must  mean  failure  —  to  another;  but  if  this 
failure  becomes  a  spur  to  increased  effort,  the  net  result  may 
be  commendable.  It  is  the  same  test  that  must  be  applied 
over  and  over  again  in  education :  not.  Is  there  any  danger  in 
using  this  method  ?  but  rather,  Are  the  possible  benefits  numer- 
ous enough  and  certain  enough  to  warrant  the  risk?  If  this 
test  is  applied  to  emulation  as  a  school  incentive,  especially  dur- 
ing the  preadolescent  period,  there  can  be  little  doubt  of  a 
favorable  verdict. 

12.  (b)  Incentives  that  make  a  Positive  Appeal  to  the 
Social  Instincts,  (i)  Praise,  Commendation,  and  Adu- 
lation. That  a  child  will  put  forth  effort  in  orcjer  to  win 
the  praise  or  commendation  of  his  parents  or  teachers  is 
a  proposition  that  needs  no  proof.  That  the  fact  is  due 
to  the  operation  of  an  instinct  is  also  not  to  be  doubted, 
for  the  tendency  appears  too  early  in  the  child^s  life  to 
admit  of  any  other  explanation.    Whether  the  instinct 

*  Schwickerath,  op.  cU.,  p.  513. 


THE   PROBLEM   OF   ATTENTION  l8l 

belongs  to  the  social  order  or  is  to  be  classed  as  a  form 
of  emulation  is  not  a  matter  of  serious  moment  in  the 
present  connection.  The  fact,  however,  that  praise  is 
effective  even  if  there  is  no  competition  in  gaining  it, 
would  seem  to  eliminate  emulation,  while  the  fact  that 
the  love  of  praise  is  closely  associated  with  the  altruistic 
tendencies  —  for  one  generally  covets  the  praise  of  those 
whom  one  admires  —  would  indicate  its  social  basis. 

13.  The  efficiency  of  pr2ase  and  commendation  in  stimu- 
lating effort  cannot  be  doubted.^  Through  all  stages  of 
education  these  incentives  are  probably  among  the  most 
potent.  Their  maximal  efficiency  is,  however,  strictly 
conditioned  by  some  very  important  principles,  (i)  A 
nice  compromise  must  be  made  between  too  Uttle  praise 
and  too  much.  The  latter  extreme  certainly  defeats  its 
own  purpose  by  giving  the  child  an  exaggerated  opinion 
of  his  own  abiUty;  as  a  result,  instead  of  putting  forth 
more  effort,  he  is  apt  to  put  forth  less.  (2)  Praise  must 
always  be  justified  by  the  effort  that  calls  it  forth.  While 
it  is  permissible  to  praise  a  dull  child  for  work  that  could 
not  be  accepted  from  a  more  capable  pupil,  it  would  be 
bad  practice  to  praise  a  bright  pupil  for  work  that  may  be 
beyond  anything  that  his  duller  fellow  could  accompUsh, 
but  which  still  has  cost  him  (the  brighter  pupil)  only  a 
minimal  effort.  (3)  Indiscriminate  praise  or  mere  flattery 
will  unerringly  be  detected  by  pupils,  and  the  most  deplor- 

*  "To  be  in  disgrace  with  its  parents  ought  to  be  for  the  child  the 
heaviest  penalty.  To  have  their  favor  should  be  its  highest  reward."  — 
Felix  Adler:  "Punishment  of  Children,"  in  Journal  of  Educaiion 
|(Bostoi]^),  1906^  vol.  Ixiii,  p.  481. 


1 82  CLASSROOM    MANAGEMENT 

able  consequences  will,  in  all  probability,  be  the  result. 
(4)  Even  justifiable  praise,  if  carried  too  far  or  continued 
too  long,  may  lead  the  pupil  into  the  very  unfortunate 
attitude  of  thinking  that  everything  which  he  does  well 
must  meet  with  a  commendatory  reception,  —  a  mistake 
of  which  he  will  certainly  have  to  disabuse  his  mind  when 
he  leaves  school  and  faces  the  problems  of  real  Hfe.  There 
are  not  a  few  men  and  women  in  the  world  who  can  trace 
their  failure  to  the  fact  that  the  praise  with  which  effort 
was  rewarded  in  childhood,  and  especially  during  school 
life,  was  not  forthcoming  when  they  began  their  real  work. 
As  a  consequence,  they  become  depressed  and  discour- 
aged, sour  and  morose,  and  such  an  attitude  is  fatal  to 
success. 

It  may  be  concluded  that,  in  the  early  stages  of  educa- 
tion, praise  should  be  neither  begrudged  nor  lavished.  As 
the  child  develops,  it  is  only  superlatively  good  work  that 
should  be  highly  commended.  It  is  only  through  some 
such  plan  as  this  that  praise  can  be  made  an  effective  and 
safe  incentive.  Under  such  conditions  it  becomes,  per- 
haps, the  most  effective  of  all  incentives.  The  desire  to 
"win  recognition"  is  the  driving  force  that  is  back  of 
most  of  the  best  work  that  is  done  in  the  world.  Nothing 
more  specific  than  the  above  principles  can  be  laid  down 
as  governing  the  operation  of  this  incentive  in  the 
schoolroom,  but  its  basic  significance  cannot  be  overesti- 
mated. 

14.  (2)  Pupils^  Pride  in  the  Good  Name  of  the  School, 
In  the  writer's  opinion  one  of  the  most  powerful  incentives 


THE   PROBLEM   OF   ATTENTION  1 83 

to  effort  on  the  part  of  pupils  is  the  pride  that  they  may  be 
led  to  take  in  the  good  name  and  high  standing  of  the 
school.  This  incentive  operates  most  effectively  in  the 
large  cities  where  there  is  a  distinct  and  recognized  rivalry 
between  different  schools,  and  where  the  interchange  of 
visits  among  teachers  of  different  schools  is  a  common 
practice.  In  such  cases  the  best  schools  receive  the 
greatest  number  of  visitors,  and  the  presence  of  visitors 
never  ceases  to  have  a  stimulating  effect  upon  the  work  of 
the  pupils.  In  a  Chicago  school,  for  example,  over  two 
thousand  visitors  were  registered  in  a  single  year.  They 
were  attracted  by  the  excellence  of  the  work  done  in  the 
school,  but  there  is  no  doubt  that  the  benefit  was  mutual, 
—  that  the  fact  of  constant  inspection  acted  reflexly  in 
stimulating  pupils  to  greater  effort  and  in  building  up  an 
esprit  de  corps  that  must  mean  much  to  the  school's  efl&- 
ciency. 

A  danger  lurks,  of  course,  in  the  operation  of  this  in- 
centive, as  danger  always  lurks  in  the  operation  of  any 
incentive.  When  a  school  becomes  a  "show"  school,  the 
spectacular  features  of  school  work  are  more  than  apt  to 
be  overestimated  and  overemphasized.  The  pupils,  too, 
may  acquire  an  exaggerated  opinion  of  their  own  abihties. 
Under  a  wise  principal,  however,  —  and  only  a  wise  prin- 
cipal can  establish  a  permanent  reputation  for  his  school,  — 
these  dangers  will  be  recognized  and  counteracted. 

In  the  smaller  systems  of  schools  the  efficiency  of  this 
incentive  will  be  somewhat  diminished  because  of  the 
lack  of   rivalry;    but  in    all   schools  visiting  should  be 


184  CLASSROOM    MANAGEMENT 

encouraged,  and  especially  the  visiting  of  teachers  to  one 
another's  rooms.  Where  the  population  is  relatively  dense 
and  neighboring  towns  are  easily  accessible,  there  should 
be  frequent  interchange  of  visits  among  the  various  corps. 
The  value  of  this  poHcy  is  by  no  means  Umited  to  the  stimu- 
lating effect  that  these  visits  have  upon  the  pupils.  They 
serve  in  no  less  degree  to  stimulate  the  teachers  by  bringing 
them  in  contact  with  the  actual  work  of  others  who  are 
meeting  and  solving  the  same  problems.^ 

15.  The  value  of  school  exhibits  in  the  creating  of  an 
esprit  de  corps  is  also  great,  although  probably  less  than 
that  which  accrues  to  the  visiting  of  schools.  The  dan- 
ger lies  in  the  fact  that  the  school  exhibit  places  a  pre- 
mium upon  "show"  work  of  a  specific  sort,  —  "showy" 
results.  The  time  of  the  pupils  is  apt  to  be  given  in  un- 
due proportion  to  the  preparation  of  the  exhibits.  The 
really  important  part  of  school  work  —  the  daily  routine 
—  is  thereby  broken  up,  and  the  more  intangible  results 
of  this  routine  receive  no  adequate  recognition.  Where 
the  regular  work  forms  the  exhibit,  as  it  does  in  school 
visiting  and  inspection,  the  routine  itself  becomes  the 
important  thing.  Nevertheless,  school  exhibits  at  county 
and  state  fairs,  and  at  national  expositions,  have  a  certain 
value  and  may  be  profitably  used  as  incentives  under 
conditions  that  render  visiting  and  inspection  imprac- 
ticable. 

16.  (c)  Ideals  as  Incentives.    While  the  distinction  be- 

*  Cf .  some  valuable  suggestions  on  this  naatter  in  Putton :  Scho/d 
l^anagement,  pp.  37  ff- 


THE   PROBLEM  OF  ATTENTION  lS$ 

tween  an  ideal  and  the  incentives  that  have  just  been  dis- 
cussed cannot  be  closely  drawn,  there  is  a  real  distinction 
which  needs  to  be  recognized  and  emphasized*  The 
latter  depend  upon  the  idea  of  an  end  to  be  reached  in  the 
somewhat  immediate  future.  If  effort  is  put  forth,  one 
may  escape  a  punishment,  or  procure  a  reward,  or  be  "  pro- 
moted," or  increase  the  respect  in  which  the  school  is 
held.  Unless  the  effort  led  to  the  fulfillment  of  the  promise 
held  forth  by  the  incentive,  the  idea  of  the  end  would  soon 
cease  to  be  effective. 

An  ideal,  however,  stands  upon  a  higher  plane.  One 
puts  forth  effort,  —  one  performs  a  task,  does  something 
that  one  does  not  wish  to  do,  —  not  because  the  putting 
forth  of  the  effort  will  necessarily  lead  to  the  desired  end, 
but  because  the  effort  is  demanded  by  an  ideal,  and  not 
to  put  forth  the  effort  would  mean  infidelity  to  the  ideal 
involved.  When  one  works  from  a  sense  of  duty,  from  a 
sense  of  self-respect,  from  an  appreciation  of  the  glory 
of  work  in  itself  and  of  the  ignominy  of  idleness,  —  when 
one  puts  forth  effort  under  any  of  these  conditions,  even 
though  the  desires  of  the  moment  are  in  another  direc- 
tion, —  the  operating  force  is  an  ideal. 

17.  The  psychology  of  ideals  is,  as  yet,  a  dark  chapter 
in  the  science  of  mind,  but  there  can  be  no  doubt  that  an 
ideal  is  a  highly  evolved  product,  in  the  development  of 
which  the  incentives  named  above  must  play  an  important 
part.  ]Sl  either  can  one  doubt  that  the  all-important  task 
of  the  school  is  to  develop  in  its  pupils  some  of  the  ideals 
that  have  just  been  referred  to.    The  danger  of  an  educa- 


1 86  CLASSROOM    MANAGEMENT 

tional  policy  that  lays  too  much  stress  upon  incentives  of 
the  lower  orders  is  that  the  stem  disciplines  of  duty,  self- 
respect,  and  self-sacrificing  effort  find  no  place  in  the 
system.  The  time  should  certainly  come  in  the  school 
life  of  every  pupil  when  tasks  can  be  assigned  without  bring- 
ing vividly  before  him  a  definite  end  that  the  performance 
of  the  task  may  bring  about;  when  merely  from  the 
"sense"  of  duty  the  necessary  effort  will  be  forthcoming 
without  involving  the  questions  of  Why?  or  Wherefore? 
Is  it  interesting?  What  good  is  it  going  to  do  me?  As 
the  author  of  the  "Message  to  Garcia"  clearly  points  out, 
the  lack  of  ability  to  do  something,  the  reasons  and  details 
and  modus  operandi  of  which  are  not  thoroughly  explained 
and  made  clear  beforehand,  is  one  of  the  prime  causes  of 
social  inefficiency.  One  would  certainly  not  argue  for  an 
educational  policy  that  should  make  the  bhnd  obedience 
to  authority  its  sole  and  only  end ;  but  between  this  extreme 
and  that  which  is  deliberately  encouraged  by  contemporary 
educational  theory,  and  which  disapproves  explicitly  of 
setting  tasks  for  which  the  pupil  can  see  no  reason,  there 
is  plenty  of  room  for  a  sane  compromise. 

The  important  principle  in  school  practice  is  this: 
Effective  ideals  derive  the  greater  part  of  their  power  from 
the  specific  habits  that  have  been  developed  during  the 
formative  period  of  life.  The  ideal  of  duty  grows  out  of 
the  specific  habits  of  obedience,  the  ideal  of  work  out  of 
the  specific  habits  of  industry,  and  so  on.  These  habits 
may  be  initiated  by  the  application  of  the  various  incentives 
named  above,  and  then,  in  the  later  periods  of  the  pupil's 


THE  PROBLEM  OF  ATTENTION  1 87 

school  life,  the  habits  should,  in  turn,  be  generalized  on 
the  basis  of  ideals. 

References.  —  White:  School  Management,  pp.  130-188;  Seeley: 
A  New  School  Management,  ch.  xiii;  Roark:  Economy  in  Educa- 
tion, pp.  55-58;  Button :  School  Management,  ch.  viii;  Kellogg: 
School  Management,  pp.  36-50;  Kirkpatrick:  Fundamentals  of 
Child  Study,  chs.  xi,  xii;  Thoradike:  Principles  0}  Teaching,  ch.  v. 


CHAPTER  Xm 
The  Technique  of  Class  Instruction 

1.  Although  a  discussion  of  methods  of  teaching  is 
not  germane  to  the  purpose  of  this  book,  there  are  certain 
principles  and  devices  of  method  that  have  to  do  specifically 
with  the  effective  treatment  of  children  in  the  mass ;  these, 
it  is  clear,  must  claim  attention  from  the  standpoint  of 
classroom  management.  It  is  obvious  to  any  one  familiar 
with  pubUc  school  work  that  no  small  amount  of  waste  is 
involved  through  lack  of  an  adequate  technique  of  class 
instruction.  Principles  of  method  are,  as  a  rule,  derived 
from  broader  psychological  principles,  which,  in  turn,  rest 
upon  a  study  of  the  individual  mind.  While  such  prin- 
ciples are,  in  general,  valid  in  appHcation  to  a  group  of 
individual  pupils,  the  fact  of  grouping  introduces  some 
modifying  factors,  and  the  operation  of  these  factors  neces- 
sarily makes  the  treatment  of  the  group  somewhat  differ- 
ent from  what  the  treatment  of  a  single  individual  would  be. 

2.  The  unique  problem  of  class  instruction  is  to  secure 
the  attention  of  all  pupils  to  the  matter  in  hand,  and  to  keep 
all  of  the  pupils  up  to  practically  the  same  level  of  attain- 
ment in  spite  of  individual  differences  in  previous  attain- 
ment and  capacity  for  further  growth.  These  difficulties 
are  augmented  by  the  American  method  of  classroom  organ- 

i88 


THE  TECHNIQUE  OF  CLASS   INSTRUCTION  1 89 

ization  whereby  two  or  more  distinct  groups  or  classes  are 
often  placed  in  the  same  room  and  under  the  instruction 
of  a  single  teacher.  This  plan  requires  that  the  members 
of  each  class  work  independently  of  the  teacher  for  at 
least  half  of  the  time  that  they  spend  in  the  classroom* 
Thus,  while  the  difficulties  of  securing  attention  from  all 
pupils  during  the  periods  of  direct  instruction  are  not  sHght, 
the  addition  of  independent  work  will  multiply  the  oppor- 
tunities for  wasting  time  and  misdirecting  energy,  and  will 
render  still  more  difficult  the  task  of  securing  imiform  and 
maximally  good  results  from  all  pupils. 

3.  The  first  concern  of  classroom  management  with 
method  of  instruction  has,  therefore,  to  do  with  this 
problem:  How  may  the  teacher  make  efifective  that  part 
of  the  class  work  which  is  necessarily  more  or  less  unsuper- 
vised ?  In  more  definite  terms  this  question  becomes  the 
problem  of  the  study  period :  How  may  the  independent 
work  of  the  pupils  during  their  study  periods  be  made 
effective  ? 

The  presence  of  two  or  more  classes  in  the  same  room, 
which  is  so  common  in  our  schools,  is  probably  one  cause 
of  the  extent  to  which  text-books  have  come  to  be  employed 
as  media  of  instruction.  The  text-book,  indeed,  is  the 
easiest  solution  of  the  problem  of  educating  children  in 
the  mass.  It  makes  possible  the  systematic  assignment 
of  seat  work  by  providing  each  pupil  with  the  same  task. 
It  relieves  the  teacher  very  largely  of  the  task  of  mapping 
out  his  own  courses,  and  keeps  instruction  to  a  definite 
line.    On  the  other  hand,  it  introduces  a  dangerous  ele- 


1 90  CLASSROOM    MANAGEMENT 

ment  in  that  it  makes  for  lower  standards  of  scholarship 
in  the  teaching  profession  than  would  be  possible  if  every 
teacher  were  responsible  for  direct  instruction.  The  system 
is  also  defective  in  that  the  text-book  frequently  "tells" 
too  much  and  leaves  very  Httle  latitude  for  the  discovery 
of  truth  by  the  pupil.  On  the  whole,  however,  the  text- 
book system  possesses  virtues  which  probably  counter- 
balance its  defects,  provided,  of  course,  that  an  adequate 
technique  of  using  text-books  is  developed ;  and  in  addi- 
tion to  this,  the  text-book  policy  is  too  thoroughly  a  part 
of  American  education  to  permit  of  eradication  save  by 
some  process  akin  to  revolution.^ 

The  problem  of  the  present  chapter,  then,  is  the  elimi- 
nation of  the  waste  that  is  involved  in  the  study  period, 
but  inasmuch  as  the  use  of  text-books  offers  a  general 
solution  of  the  problem,  the  question  may  be  stated  still 
more  specifically:  How  may  text-books  be  used  effec- 
tively ? 

Text-books  may  be  roughly  divided  into  three  classes: 
(a)  readers;  (b)  manuals  or  handbooks,  such  as  arithmetic 
and  grammar  texts  which  provide  a  minimum  of  facts  and 
principles  with  a  maximum  of  exercises  or  problems  to  be 
worked  out  by  the  pupils;  and  (c)  text-books  proper,  such  as 
geographies,  histories,  and  physiologies,  in  which  the  chief  aim 
is  the  logical  and  systematic  setting  forth  of  facts  and  principles. 
The  general  principles  of  text-book  instruction  apply  with 
equal  force  to  each  of  these  classes;  they  are  especially  im- 
portant, however,  in  the  use  of  the  third  class. 

*  Cf.  a  more  detailed  discussion  of  this  matter  in  The  Educative 
Process,  ch.  xvii. 


THE  TECHNIQUE   OF   CLASS   INSTRUCTION  19I 

4.  The  Difficulties  0}  Text-book  Instruction.  In  using 
text-books  three  general  difficulties  must  be  overcome: 
(a)  The  pupil  must  have  some  motive  for  attacking  the 
printed  page,  or  some  interest  in  its  contents,  if  he  is  to 
give  it  the  attention  that  is  necessary  for  the  assimilation 
of  the  matter  presented.  Not  all  of  the  material  presented 
in  text-books  is  intrinsically  interesting  to  every  pupil,  nor 
can  it  be  assumed  in  every  case  that  the  pupil  possesses 
an  adequate  motive  for  acquiring  something  that  is  not 
intrinsically  interesting,  (b)  The  text-book  may  employ 
terms  the  meanings  of  which  are  not  familiar  to  the  pupils. 
It  may  use  familiar  words  in  new  connections.  It  may 
present  matter  for  the  apperception  of  which  the  pupil 
lacks  an  adequate  basis  of  fact,  (c)  Even  if  these  con- 
ditions are  not  operative,  the  reading  of  the  text  will  not 
hold  attention  so  well  as  would  the  oral  presentation  of  the 
same  matter.  Attention  is  a  rhythmic  process,  presenting 
periods  or  phases  which  we  describe  as  rise,  dominance, 
and  decline.*  These  rhythms  follow  one  another  very 
rapidly,  whether  the  pupils  are  listening  to  oral  instruc- 
tion or  preparing  lessons  from  text-books.  In  the  former 
case,  however,  the  character  of  the  instruction  "fits  in" 
more  or  less  perfectly  with  the  rh5rthmic  nature  of  atten- 
tion. The  speaker  modulates  his  voice;  he  emphasizes 
some  words  and  minimizes  others;  he  introduces  facial 
expression  and  gestures:   in  short,  oral    instruction  pro- 

*  The  current  controversy  among  psychologists  with  regard  to  the 
rhythms  of  attention  has,  of  course,  no  bearing  upon  the  fact  of  the  rhyth- 
mic characteristic  of  the  attentive  state.  It  concerns  merely  the  ex- 
planation of  the  rhythms. 


192  CLASSROOM    MANAGEMENT 

vides  a  greater  variety  of  sensory  impressions,  and  variety 
of  stimulus  is  one  of  the  most  essential  conditions  of  atten- 
tion. The  printed  page,  on  the  other  hand,  is  more 
monotonous  in  respect  of  the  sensory  impressions  that  it 
provides ;  it  might  be  described  as  presenting  its  material 
on  the  same  level  continually;  while  the  speaker  works 
in  three  dimensions,  the  writer  is,  as  it  were,  limited  to 
one. 

The  technique  of  text-book  instruction  must,  in  some 
manner,  counteract  or  overcome  these  difficulties.  Its 
problems  are  (a)  to  give  the  pupil  a  motive,  or  to  develop 
an  interest  in  the  material  presented ;  (b)  to  clear  up  the 
difficulties  of  thought  and  form  that  would  otherwise  be 
insuperable  barriers  to  the  assimilation  of  the  material 
presented;  and  (c)  to  provide  some  measure  of  variety 
that  will  serve  to  reheve  the  monotony  of  the  printed  page — 
to  make  the  salient  and  important  points  stand  out  clearly. 

5.  Divisions  of  the  Text-book  Lesson,  (a)  The  Assign- 
ment. The  text-book  lesson  normally  falls  into  three 
parts:  (a)  the  assignment;  (b)  the  study  lesson;  and 
(c)  the  recitation.  Of  these,  the  first  is  undoubtedly  the 
most  important  from  the  standpoint  of  the  teacher. 

The  assignment  of  a  lesson  should  fulfill  two  functions : 
(i)  It  should  clear  up  the  insuperable  or  relatively  insuper- 
able difficulties  in  the  way  of  form.  These  difficulties 
may  consist  of  new  words,  obscure  passages,  and  difficult 
or  unusual  constructions.  How  far  the  teacher  should  go 
in  this  direction  will  be  a  matter  of  judgment  in  each 
specific  case.    To  spend  valuable  time  in  explaining  the 


THE  TECHNIQUE  OF  CLASS   INSTRUCTION  1 93 

meaning  of  words  with  which  the  pupils  are  already 
famiHar  is  obviously  a  waste  of  time  and  energy.  Again, 
to  do  too  much  for  the  pupil  may  be  to  miss  a  valuable 
opportunity  for  encouraging  independent  ejffort  on  his 
part.  Some  authorities  beHeve  that  the  teacher  should 
give  absolutely  no  help  in  the  assignment;  the  pupil,  they 
assert,  should  solve  the  difl&culties  for  himself.  Let  the 
new  words  be  "looked  up"  in  the  dictionary,  and  let  the 
constructions  be  worked  out  independently.  But  is  it 
always  profitable  or  economical  to  do  this?  Are  the 
results  gained,  for  example,  in  "running  down"  all  new 
words  in  the  dictionary  commensurate  with  the  time  and 
energy  expended?  Is  not  the  dictionary  definition  often 
misleading,  and  does  one  not  often  get  meanings  from 
famiUar  context  that  are  far  more  valuable  than  those  de- 
rived from  formal  definitions?  It  is  such  questions  as 
these  that  must  be  met  and  answered  in  determining  how 
much  to  do  for  the  pupil  in  assigning  lessons.^    In  the 

^  It  is  interesting  to  note  how  authorities  diflfer  with  regard  to  the  use 
of  the  dictionary  in  the  lower  grades.  The  Illinois  "Course  of  Study" 
contains  the  following  recommendations:  "By  the  time  the  pupil  reaches 
the  sixth  grade,  he  should  be  able  to  pronounce  all  the  common  words  at 
sight.  He  should  be  required  during  the  study  hour,  to  look  up  in  the 
dictionary  the  pronunciation  of  all  words  unfamiliar  to  him.  In  Grades 
V  and  VI  he  is  taught  how  to  use  the  dictionary  for  definitions.  .  .  .  He 
should  learn  to  decide  between  the  meanings  of  a  word  to  select  the 
meaning  that  the  context  calls  for.  This  work  is  begun  in  the  fifth 
grade  and  carried  on  more  independently  by  the  pupil  himself  in  the 
sixth."  (p.  61.)  Superintendent  R.  G.  Young  of  Butte  recommends 
the  use  of  the  dictionary  in  the  last  half  of  Grade  III.  The  Portland 
(Oregon)  "Course  of  Study"  prescribes  the  dictionary  for  pronunci- 
ation in  the  first  half  of  Grade  IV.  State  Superintendent  Carring- 
ton  of  Missouri  recommends  the  dictionary  for  Grade  VI.    In  the  Los 


194  CLASSROOM    MANAGEMENT 

writer^s  experience  the  best  results  have  been  obtained 
by  carefully  explaining  all  formal  difficulties  in  lessons 
assigned  to  the  lower  grades  —  through  the  fourth  grade 
in  any  case.  In  the  upper  grades  more  reUance  is  placed 
upon  dictionary  work,  but  even  then  new  terms  that  are 
especially  important  are  developed  orally.^ 

The  technique  of  developing  new  words  permits  numerous 
variations.  In  some  lessons  the  subject-matter  treated  by  the 
text  is  briefly  outlined,  the  new  words  being  written  upon  the 
blackboard  and  explained  through  illustrative  sentences  when- 
ever they  come  up  in  this  preliminary  development  of  the  lesson. 
In  other  lessons  it  will  be  unnecessary  to  give  an  oral  develop- 
ment of  the  subject-matter,  and  the  new  words  in  such  cases 
may  be  given  in  sentences  that  are  not  directly  related  to  the 
content  of  the  text.  In  any  case  it  is  much  better  to  give  the 
word  in  a  familiar  sentence  and  ask  the  pupils  to  tell  its  mean- 
ing than  to  write  the  word  upon  the  blackboard  and  give  a 
formal  definition.  In  all  assignments  there  should  be  more  or 
less  "give-and-take"  between  pupils  and  teacher  if  the  pupils 
are  to  follow  the  development  attentively. 

Angeles  schools  it  is  prescribed  for  Grade  V.  Many  other  authori- 
ties make  similar  recommendations.  On  the  other  hand,  Principal 
Chubb  warns  us  not  to  "overwork  the  dictionary"  in  the  earlier  grades, 
and  Professor  S.  H.  Clark  would  have  the  meaning  of  words  gained  from 
context  rather  than  by  dictionary  definition. 

*  "What  is  the  teacher  for?  .  .  .  Good  pedagogy  says,  To  give  such 
a  preview  of  every  subject,  of  every  lesson,  as  will  make  the  pupil's  study 
effective,  as  will  help  him  to  see  relations,  and  save  him  from  misconcep- 
tions. Without  the  proper  preview,  a  great  part  of  the  teacher's  work  is 
correcting  errors  that  ought  to  have  been  avoided  —  is  requiring  the  pupil 
to  'unlearn'  what  he  never  ought  to  have  learned.  The  preview  is  the 
'ounce  of  prevention'  that  is  worth  a  whole  night  occupied  in  correcting 
the  pupil's  written  work."  —  F.  H.  Hall,  in  School  News  (Taylorville, 
Illinois),  1906,  vol.  xix,  p.  338. 


THE   TECHNIQUE   OF   CLASS   INSTRUCTION  1 95 

6.  Formal  difficulties  are  not  infrequently  due  to  the 
fact  that  pupils  fail  to  notice  shght  peculiarities  of  form 
upon  which  an  important  meaning  may  turn.  Thus  the 
"thought"  of  a  paragraph  may  sometimes  depend  upon 
a  small  word  that  may  be  overlooked,  or  upon  the  peculiar 
emphasis  that  must  be  given  to  a  certain  word.  The 
pupils  should,  of  course,  be  encouraged  to  search  these 
things  out  for  themselves ;  but  they  will  not  accomplish  this 
end  unless  some  hint  as  to  the  method  is  given  in  the 
assignment. 

These  unobtrusive  peculiarities  of  form  are  really  the  factors 
that  make  English  spelling  so  difficult  to  master.  The  slight 
formal  difference  between  "thought"  and  ''though,"  "saw" 
and  "was,"  are  instances  that  will  be  familiar  to  all  teachers 
in  the  primary  grades.  Even  more  troublesome  are  the  words 
that  are  identical  in  sound,  but  which  have  different  meanings 
and  different  spellings,  —  "knew"  and  "new,"  "deer"  and 
"dear,"  and  the  like. 

The  assignment  is  consequently  at  no  time  more  important 
than  in  preparing  for  the  spelling  lesson.  The  pupils'  attention 
must  be  explicitly  directed  to  the  minute  differences  that  are 
apt  to  cause  trouble.  This  is  best  done  by  emphasizing  the 
correct  form,  without,  at  the  same  time,  suggesting  the  mistake 
that  the  pupil  is  likely  to  make.  A  very  good  example  of  an 
effective  assignment  in  this  respect  was  recently  brought  to 
the  writer's  attention  by  an  institute  instructor.  In  a  spelling 
lesson  for  the  fourth  grade  the  only  word  that  was  apt  to  cause 
trouble  was  "separate."  The  instructor  suggested  writing 
this  word  slowly  upon  the  blackboard,  pausing  briefly  at  the 
end  of  the  first  syllable,  —  "sep,"  —  then  writing  the  trouble- 
some "a"  with  bright  red  crayon,  completing  the  word  with 
white  crayon,  —  "separate."    Whenever  a  wrong  letter  is  apt 


196  CLASSROOM    MANAGEMENT 

to  be  substituted,  owing  to  phonic  resemblances,  some  device 
like  this  that  will  bring  the  correct  letter  vividly  before  the 
pupils*  minds  may  appropriately  find  a  place  in  the  assign- 
ment. 

In  another  fourth-grade  spelling  lesson  the  following  words 
were  assigned  for  spelling:  close,  clothes,  brought,  thought, 
carpenter,  advantage,  devour,  pieces,  comfortable.  The 
teacher's  general  method  of  assignment  was  to  have  each  word 
carefully  focalized,  syllabicated,  pronounced,  and  spelled,  first 
silently  and  then  aloud.  In  discriminating  between  homo- 
phones, the  pupils  were  required  to  used  the  words  correctly 
in  sentences.  In  focalizing  the  word  "clothes,"  the  teacher 
pointed  to  the  "e"  and  said,  '*I  want  you  always  to  remember 
to  put  this  letter  in."  When  "brought"  and  "thought"  were 
under  discussion,  the  teacher  asked  if  the  words  were  alike  in 
any  respect.  A  pupil  suggested  that  they  ended  in  the  same 
way.  "Yes,"  said  the  teacher,  "if  we  cover  up  the  first  two 
letters  of  each,  they  are  alike.  Then  let  us  remember  what 
these  two  letters  are  for  each  word."  Mnemonic  devices  were 
used  in  focalizing  "devour"  and  "pieces."  In  the  former  case, 
the  "our"  was  arbitrarily  associated  with  "devour";  in  the 
latter  case,  "pie"  was  associated  with  "pieces.^'  The  pupils 
were  famihar  with  the  spelling  of  both  "our"  and  "pie." 
Just  how  far  such  mnemonic  devices  should  be  employed  is  an 
open  question,  but  the  results  in  these  instances  seemed  to 
justify  the  practice.  In  order  to  test  the  efl&ciency  of  this 
assignment,  the  same  words  were  given  to  the  class  five  days 
afterward.  Eighty  per  cent  of  the  pupils  spelled  all  of  the 
words  correctly;  twenty  per  cent  failed  on  one  of  the  nine 
words.  The  same  lesson  was  given  to  another  class  of  the 
same  age  and  grade  without  assignment  or  study.  One  pupil 
spelled  eight  words  correctly;  another  spelled  only  one  cor- 
rectly; the  average  standing  of  the  class  in  the  test  was  47 
per  cent. 


THE  TECHNIQUE   OF   CLASS   INSTRUCTION  197 

7.  (2)  The  second  function  of  the  assignment  is  even 
more  important  than  the  first.  It  is  to  develop  in  the  pupil 
either  an  interest  in  the  subject-matter  of  the  text,  or  a 
motive  for  attacking  the  text  aggressively.  In  this  con- 
nection the  first  task  is  to  make  clear  the  relation  between 
the  forthcoming  lesson  and  those  that  have  preceded,  — 
to  "connect  up"  the  new  and  the  old.  If  this  is  not  done, 
the  text  may  be  comparatively  meaningless  to  the  pupil; 
and  his  assimilation  of  the  content  will,  of  course,  be  im- 
possible. 

It  is  at  this  point  that  the  inductive  development  lesson, 
involving  the  five  "formal  steps"  of  the  Herbartian  pedagogy, 
has  its  field  of  widest  application  in  our  American  schools. 
Many  teachers  who  have  mastered  the  theory  of  the  formal 
steps  in  their  normal  school  or  college  work  fail  to  use  the 
inductive  method  of  development  in  their  teaching,  because 
the  public  school  system  in  which  they  work  is  dominated  by 
text-books,  and  they  cannot  see  how  the  text-book  and  the 
development  lesson  can  go  hand  in  hand.  As  a  matter  of  fact, 
the  assignment  of  any  text-book  lesson  in  which  a  new  prin- 
ciple is  brought  out  may  involve  an  inductive  oral  development 
covering,  perhaps,  an  entire  period. 

This  is  clearly  seen  in  the  teaching  of  arithmetic  and  gram- 
mar. In  taking  up  any  new  principle,  such  as  the  division  of 
decimals,  or  the  definition  of  a  preposition,  the  proper  pro- 
cedure is  inductive  development,  involving  (a)  the  preparation 
(bringing  into  consciousness  the  material  already  mastered 
upon  which  the  new  principle  depends) ;  (b)  the  presentation 
(generally  concrete  cases  involving  the  new  principle) ;  (c)  the 
comparison  and  abstraction  (comparing  the  concrete  cases  and 
picking  out  the  common  elements);  (d)  the  generalization 
(formulating  the  common  elements  in  a  rule,  definition,  or 


198  CLASSROOM    MANAGEMENT 

principle);  and  (e)  application  (showing  how  the  principle 
applies  to  new  cases). 

The  following  lesson  in  arithmetic  represents  an  actual 
assignment  given  to  a  ninth-grade  class:  — 

The  lesson  had  for  its  purpose  the  development  of  the  prin- 
ciple that,  in  a  right-angled  triangle,  the  square  of  the  hypote- 
nuse equals  the  sum  of  the  squares  of  the  other  two  sides. 
The  teacher  had  prepared  a  diagram  showing  a  right-angled 
triangle  with  squares  constructed  upon  the  hypotenuse  and  the 
two  sides.  The  perpendicular  of  the  triangle  was  labeled  AB, 
and  was  three  inches  in  length;  the  base  (BC)  was  four  inches 
in  length;  the  hypotenuse  (AC)  was  five  inches  in  length. 
The  diagram  was  carefully  drawn  upon  a  flexible  blackboard, 
which  the  teacher  had  rolled  up,  and  which  was  not  displayed 
to  the  pupils  until  the  step  of  preparation  had  been  completed. 
(Note  the  value  of  this  small  detail  of  technique  in  the  appeal 
made  to  the  instinct  of  curiosity.) 

Preparation.  The  class  had  been  working  problems  involving 
the  application  of  square  root  in  determining  the  side  of  square 
when  the  area  is  given.  Problems  of  this  nature  had  been  as- 
signed for  home  work,  and  a  few  moments  at  the  beginning  of 
the  recitation  were  devoted  to  a  discussion  of  two  problems  with 
which  the  pupils  had  found  diflSculty.  By  this  means  the  prin- 
ciples governing  the  extraction  of  square  root  were  reviewed. 

Statement  of  the  Aim.  * '  To-day  we  shall  study  another  appli- 
cation of  square  root." 

Presentation.  The  flexible  blackboard  which  has  been 
hanging  on  the  wall  is  unrolled.  The  teacher  calls  the  atten- 
tion of  the  class  to  the  diagram. 

Teacher.  "Where  did  I  begin  to  make  this  drawing?" 
(Calling  on  a  certain  pupil.) 

Pupil.   "You  drew  the  triangle  first." 

T.  "What  kind  of  a  triangle  did  I  draw?"  (Calling  on 
another  pupil.) 


THE  TECHNIQUE   OF   CLASS   INSTRUCTION  1 99 

P.   "A  right-angled  triangle." 

T.  "We  call  these  two  lines  (pointing  to  AB  and  BC)  the 
perpendicular  and  the  base.  This  third  line,  however,  has  a 
name  of  its  own  with  which  you  are  not  familiar.  We  call  this 
the  hypotenuse.^*  (Writes  the  name  on  the  board  as  she  pro- 
nounces the  word.) 

The  names  are  then  rapidly  reviewed,  the  teacher  pointing 
to  the  three  lines  in  rapid  succession,  and  calling  upon  different 
pupils,  who  rise  quickly  and  give  the  required  names. 

T.   "After  drawing  the  triangle,  what  did  I  next  do?" 

Various  pupils  volunteer  different  opinions.  Finally  one 
pupil  replies :  — 

"You  made  a  square  with  the  perpendicular  for  one  side." 

T,   "Yes;  and  how  long  is  the  perpendicular?" 

P.   (After  measuring  it) :   "Three  inches." 

T.  "How  shall  I  find  the  area  of  the  square?"  (Calling  on 
a  particular  pupil  by  name,  as  is  the  invariable  custom  of 
most  good  teachers  in  work  of  this  sort.) 

P.  "Multiply  the  length  by  the  breadth.  The  area  of  this 
square  would  be  nine  square  inches." 

T.  "Right;  I  shall  put  'g  square  inches  '  in  the  center  of 
the  square.  How  many  little  squares  each  containing  one 
square  inch  are  there  in  the  large  square?" 

P.   "Nine." 

The  other  squares  are  then  treated  in  the  same  way,  and  with 
little  less  detail.  The  terms  are  reviewed  in  each  instance,  and 
the  answers  are  obtained  from  different  pupils  in  every  case. 

T.  "Count  the  squares  upon  this  side."  (Pointing  to  the 
base.)  "  And  upon  this  side  ?  "  (Pointing  to  the  perpendicular.) 
"How  many  altogether?" 

P.   "Twenty-five  squares." 

Comparison  and  Abstraction.  T.  "But  this  is  the  same  as 
the  number  that  I  had  upon  the  hypotenuse.  Now  if  I  knew 
that  there  were  twenty-five  squares  on  the  hypotenuse,  and 


200  CLASSROOM    MANAGEMENT 

nine  squares  on  the  perpendicular,  how  could  I  find  how  many 
would  be  on  the  base?" 

P.  "You  could  subtract  nine  squares  from  twenty-five 
squares,  and  you  would  know  that  there  were  sixteen  squares 
on  the  base." 

T.  "And  if  I  knew  that  there  were  twenty-five  squares  on 
the  hypotenuse  and  sixteen  on  the  base,  how  could  I  find  the 
number  on  the  perpendicular?" 

P.  "You  could  subtract  sixteen  from  twenty-five.  You 
would  have  nine  squares  on  the  base." 

T.   "What  is  the  square  of  three?" 

P.   "Nine." 

T.   "What  is  the  square  of  four?" 

P.   "Sixteen." 

T.   "What  is  the  sum  of  the  squares?" 

P.   "Twenty-five." 

T.   "What  is  the  square  root  of  twenty-five?" 

P.   "Five." 

T.   "What  is  the  square  of  five?" 

P.   "Twenty-five." 

T.   "What  is  the  square  of  three?" 

P.   "Nine." 

T.   "  What  is  the  difference  of  the  squares?" 

P.   "Sixteen." 

The  same  questions  are  asked  with  respect  to  the  difference 
between  twenty-five  and  sixteen.  Different  pupils  answer  the 
different  questions  at  the  request  of  the  teacher.  The  teacher 
then  reviews  the  facts  very  briefly  with  the  pupils. 

Generalization.  T.  *  *  How,  then ,  may  we  find  the  hypotenuse 
if  we  know  the  base  and  perpendicular?" 

P.  "Square  the  two  sides,  add,  and  extract  the  square 
root." 

T.  "How  may  we  find  one  side  if  we  know  the  hypotenuse 
and  the  other  side?" 


THE   TECHNIQUE   OF   CLASS   INSTRUCTION  20I 

P.  "Square  the  hypotenuse  and  the  side  you  know,  subtract 
the  square  of  the  side  you  know  from  the  square  of  the  hypote- 
nuse, and  extract  the  square  root." 

Other  pupils  make  similar  formulations  until  a  general  rule 
is  obtained  that  covers  all  cases. 

Application.  T.  "Let  us  see  what  application  we  can 
make  of  this."  An  example  is  read  by  the  teacher  from  the 
book : — 

"Base,  i6o;   perpendicular,  i68;   hypotenuse?" 

A  pupil  draws  a  triangle  that  will  approximately  represent 
these  conditions. 

T.  "I  want  some  one  to  put  the  figures  where  they  belong 
on  this  triangle."  Several  pupils  volunteer;  one  is  selected 
and  does  the  work  correctly. 

T.   (To  another  pupil):  "Right  or  wrong?" 

P.   "Right." 

T.   "Why?" 

The  pupil  quickly  explains  why  the  arrangement  is  correct. 

Two  other  problems  are  similarly  diagramed  and  the  dia- 
grams labeled,  the  teacher  requiring  criticisms  in  each  instance 
and  insisting  upon  the  reasons.  The  first  problem  is  then  solved. 
Then  others  that  involve  the  reverse  process  are  taken  up.  A 
more  concrete  problem  is  next  considered :  — 

"A  boy  is  flying  a  kite.  The  string  is  one  hundred  feet  long. 
The  kite  is  directly  above  a  point  eighty  feet  from  where  the  boy 
is  standing.    How  high  is  the  kite  above  the  ground?" 

T.  (Calling  on  a  pupil):  "Put  upon  the  board  a  cross 
standing  for  the  boy." 

"Put  upon  the  board  a  cross  standing  for  the  kite." 

"For  the  point  directly  under  the  kite." 

"Draw  a  line  corresponding  to  the  string  of  the  kite." 

"To  the  line  connecting  the  kite  and  the  point  on  the  ground 
immediately  beneath  it." 

"To  the  line  connecting  this  point  with  the  boy." 


202  CLASSROOM    MANAGEMENT 

''Place  the  numbers  where  they  belong  on  the  diagram." 
DifiFerent  pupils  do  these  different  things  as  the  questions 
are  asked. 

T.   "Now  how  shall  I  solve  this  problem?" 
The  solution  is  sketched  by  a  pupil,  although  the  operations 
are  not  actually  made. 

One  or  two  other  problems,  taken  from  the  book,  are  dia- 
gramed in  a  similar  manner,  and  the  teacher  then  assigns 
several  additional  problems  for  home  work. 

The  lesson,  of  which  the  above  account  is  practically  an 
exact  transcript,  occupied  forty  minutes,  and  is  a  typical 
example  of  the  inductive  development  lesson  functioning  as 
an  assignment  in  arithmetic. 

8.  In  some  cases  a  direct  interest  may  be  aroused  in 
the  subject-matter  through  the  skillful  stimulation  of  the 
instinct  of  curiosity.  Many  lessons  which  the  pupil  would 
otherwise  attack  listlessly  and  ineffectively  may  be  so  art- 
fully introduced  through  an  anecdote  or  some  personal 
allusion  that  the  pupils  v^U  wish  to  read  the  material  as 
quickly  as  possible. 

An  example  of  such  an  assignment  is  represented  by  the 
following  incident  which  was  related  to  the  writer  by  one  of 
the  ablest  schoolmen  in  the  country.  In  teaching  a  beginning 
class  in  United  States  history,  he  had  been  in  the  habit  of  making 
rather  elaborate  assignments,  but  when  the  topic  of  Arnold's 
treason  was  reached,  he  changed  his  policy,  and  assigned  the 
lesson  somewhat  as  follows:  "The  next  few  pages  of  the  book 
tell  about  a  very  mean  man.  I  do  not  think  that  I  have  ever 
heard  of  another  man  so  mean  and  contemptible  as  he  was. 
I  don't  know  that  it  will  pay  us  to  spend  very  much  time  on 
this  man;  but,  after  all,  it  was  a  rather  pathetic  case,  and 


THE   TECHNIQUE   OF   CLASS    INSTRUCTION  203 

you  might  read  it  over  this  evening."  The  teacher  character- 
ized the  next  day's  recitation  as  the  best  that  he  had  ever 
secured  from  any  class  in  history. 

Assignments  of  this  type  will  probably  not  be  made  very 
frequently,  for  the  reason  that  opportunities  for  stimulating 
curiosity  do  not  often  occur.  A  more  extended  use  can  be 
made,  however,  of  an  acquired  interest  that  is  closely 
related  to  instinctive  curiosity.  Pupils  may  be  led  to 
infer  what  events  might  happen  under  certain  conditions 
and  then  sent  to  the  text-books  to  verify  or  disprove  their 
inferences. 

This  type  of  assignment  involves  what  the  writer  has  termed 
the  ''deductive  development  lesson,"*  and  is  perhaps  most 
frequently  to  be  applied  in  geography  and  history.  In  the 
former  subject,  for  example,  the  assignment  of  a  lesson  on 
England  would  consist  of  a  map  study  of  England.  From 
this  study  the  pupils  would  be  led  to  infer  such  facts  as  the 
climate,  productions,  occupations  of  the  people,  etc.  Having 
made  these  inferences,  the  text-books  could  be  consulted  in 
order  to  determine  how  close  the  pupils  had  come  to  the  real 
facts.  This  general  method  is  also  important  in  that  it  gives 
wide  scope  for  the  effective  employment  of  reference  books 
other  than  the  regular  text.  In  history,  pupils  may  be  encour- 
aged to  make  inferences  as  to  the  next  move  that  an  army 
would  make,  or  the  next  step  that  a  statesman  would  take  in 
carrying  out  a  given  policy,  and  then  referred  to  the  text  for 
verification  of  the  inference.  Care  must,  of  course,  be  taken 
to  prevent  such  exercises  from  lapsing  into  mere  guesswork; 
properly  handled,  however,  they  furnish  an  incentive  for 
effective  study  that  could  hardly  be  gained  in  any  other  way. 

*  Cf .  The  Educative  Process,  ch.  xx. 


204  CLASSROOM    MANAGEMENT 

9.  In  assigning  selections  of  literature  for  reading  it  is 
frequently  necessary  to  give  a  general  account  of  the 
"setting"  of  the  selection.  Thus  the  selection  may  be 
taken  from  a  more  extended  work,  or  it  may  have  reference 
to  some  historical  event.  In  either  case,  the  reading  will 
be  rendered  more  intelligible  if  the  "setting"  is  described 
in  some  detail. 

In  a  reader  used  in  the  fifth  grade,  Lincoln's  Gettysburg 
address  is  given.  The  writer  attempted  to  have  fifth-grade 
pupils  read  this  under  the  ordinary  method  of  assignment, 
"Take  your  readers,  turn  to  page  65,  and  study  this  lesson." 
He  found  the  results  so  inadequate  that  he  had  the  pupils  close 
their  books,  and  then  he  told  them  the  story  of  Gettysburg, 
making  as  clear  as  possible  the  situation  between  the  North 
and  the  South,  showing  the  decisive  character  of  the  battle, 
and  dwelling  briefly  upon  the  tremendous  loss  of  Hfe  that  was 
involved,  and  the  general  significance  of  the  victory.  All  this 
was  necessary  in  order  to  show  why  an  occasion  had  arisen  for 
Lincoln's  address.  Then  he  went  through  the  text,  carefully 
explaining  the  allusions  and  assigning  the  reading  for  the  next 
lesson.  The  pupils  worked  at  it  during  the  study  period  and 
came  to  the  recitation  well  prepared.  Since  that  time  he  has 
made  it  a  practice  always  to  have  masterpieces  of  literature 
carefully  assigned  and  frequently  read  aloud  to  the  class  before 
setting  the  pupils  to  work  upon  them  independently.^ 

10.  The  assignment  very  infrequently  takes  the  form  of 
a  formal  lecture,  covering  points  developed  in  the  text. 
This  procedure  would  generally  be  regarded  in  elementary 

^  The  reading  of  a  literary  masterpiece  to  the  pupils  before  assigning 
it  for  study  is  recommended  by  Chubb.  Cf,  Teaching  of  English 
pp.  99  ff. 


THE  TECHNIQUE   OF  CLASS   INSTRUCTION  205 

education  as  "soft  pedagogy,'^  although,  strange  to  say,  it 
is  perhaps  the  most  common  method  of  teaching  in  the 
colleges  and  universities,  where  many  introductory  courses 
are  nothing  more  nor  less  than  lectures  on  a  text-book 
which  is  in  the  students'  hands,  and  which  they  cover  in 
parallel  readings.  In  elementary  education  such  a  pro- 
cedure is  eminently  in  place  in  introducing  the  more  difficult 
conceptions  of  physical  geography,  where  objective  demon- 
stration through  globes,  tellurians,  etc.,  is  essential  to  the 
pupils'  understanding  of  the  subject.  After  a  demon- 
stration of  this  sort,  accompanied  by  the  descriptive  "lec- 
ture," the  pupil  is  given  the  text-book  and  assigned  the 
lesson  which  treats  of  the  same  principles. 

II.  In  general,  it  may  be  concluded  that  much  of  the 
time  which  young  pupils  waste  in  attempting  to  "get 
lessons"  out  of  text-books  could  be  saved  and  turned  to 
educative  use  if  the  lessons  were  skillfully  and  properly 
assigned.  The  careful  assignment  offers  a  safe  compro- 
mise between  the  German  method  of  oral  instruction  and 
the  American  method  of  book  instruction;  it  provides  a 
field  of  appHcation  for  the  inductive  and  deductive  develop- 
ment lessons ;  in  short,  it  is  the  field  in  which  the  skillful 
and  efl&cient  teacher  does  most  of  his  real  teaching  or  in- 
structing. It  is  not  without  its  dangers;  subject-matter 
may  possibly  be  made  too  easy  for  the  pupil ;  but,  in  view 
of  the  inadequate  results  in  the  common  use  of  text-books, 
it  would  appear  that  the  danger  line  is  far  in  the  distance. 
Opponents  of  elaborate  assignments  tell  us  that  the  pupil 
gains  strength  by  overcoming  difficulties,  and  that  he  should 


2o6  CLASSROOM    MANAGEMENT 

attack  the  printed  page  without  help  and  get  out  of  it  what 
he  can.  And  yet  every  teacher  of  experience  in  elementary 
school  work  will  testify  that  pupils  who  are  treated  by  this 
method  almost  invariably  come  to  recitation  unprepared, 
and  all  will  agree  that  it  is  unjust  to  hold  pupils  responsible 
for  something  that  must  necessarily  be  vague,  hazy,  and 
obscure  to  them.  The  natural  result  is  that  the  teacher 
who  does  not  teach  in  the  assignment  is  forced  to  teach  in 
the  recitation.  He  must  go  over  the  lesson  at  that  time, 
clearing  up  the  points  that  should  have  been  cleared  up 
before  the  pupils  attacked  the  text.  Under  these  con- 
ditions, pupils  soon  come  to  know  that,  if  they  do  not  mas- 
ter the  text,  the  teacher  will  recite  it  for  them,  and  the 
most  important  stimulus  to  effort  —  the  idea  of  respon- 
sibility for  results  —  is  eHminated.  It  is  this  condition 
that  makes  text-book  work  on  the  whole  so  inadequate. 
With  a  careful  assignment,  however,  pupils  can  be  held 
rigidly  responsible  for  the  mastery  of  the  text,  and  the 
recitation  becomes  a  word  with  a  meaning. 

12.  (b)  The  Study  Lesson.  The  application  of  the 
pupils  in  their  period  of  seat  work  tests  the  efficiency  of 
the  assignment.  One  of  the  surest  indices  of  a  teacher's 
abihty  is  the  diligence  of  the  study  class.  Indeed,  the  ex- 
pert and  experienced  supervisor  will  always  look  first  at  the 
study  class.  If  these  pupils  are  working  vigorously  and  with 
evident  efficiency,  he  turns  his  attention  to  the  class  that  is 
reciting.  The  prime  test  of  a  teacher  is  not  the  manner  in 
which  he  conducts  a  recitation,  but  the  growth  that  his  pu- 
pils make  in  ability  to  work  efficiently  without  supervision. 


THE  TECHNIQUE   OF  CLASS   INSTRUCTION  207 

13.  The  Technique  of  the  Study  Lesson.  However  skill- 
ful the  assignment  may  be,  it  should  not  be  entirely  de- 
pended upon  to  secure  the  appHcation  of  the  pupils  during 
the  study  period.  It  was  said  above  that  the  main  difficulty 
in  holding  the  attention  to  the  printed  page  is  the  lack  of 
sensory  variety  in  the  material  which  the  page  presents. 
The  technique  of  the  study  lesson  must,  therefore,  do 
something  to  counteract  this  difficulty  —  it  must  intro- 
duce variety  of  sensory  stimulus. 

(i)  Study  Questions.  When  the  pupil  first  begins  to  use 
text-books,  it  is  well  to  furnish  study  questions  that  will 
aid  him  during  the  study  period  to  pick  out  the  salient 
points  treated  in  the  text.  There  are  two  types  of  such 
questions:  these  may  be  termed  for  convenience  the 
"fact"  questions  and  the  "thought"  questions.  Certain 
points  of  the  text  may  be  selected  and  questions  asked 
which  can  be  answered  by  reference  to  these  points.  Thus 
the  central  thought  of  each  paragraph  may  be  indicated 
by  a  question.  If  the  paragraph  is  long  and  involved, 
several  subordinate  questions  may  be  included  to  cover 
the  details.  Questions  of  the  "thought"  type  aim  to 
secure  the  original  reaction  of  the  pupils  upon  points  that 
may  later  serve  as  centers  for  discussion.  In  history,  for 
example,  the  pupil  may  be  asked  to  form  an  estimate  of 
a  certain  character,  or  to  tell  why  a  certain  policy  would 
be  good  or  bad.  In  geography,  he  may  be  encouraged  to 
think  out  the  reasons  for  the  facts  presented  in  the  text, 
why  New  York  has  become  a  large  city,  why  New  Orleans 
is  an  important  shipping  point,  etc. 


2o8  CLASSROOM    MANAGEMENT 

The  following  suggestions,  taken  from  the  Illinois  ''Course 
of  Study,"  indicate  questions  that  may  be  used  in  the  study  of 
the  reading  lesson:  "In  the  preparation  for  the  lesson,  let  the 
teacher  assign  definite  questions,  having  a  care  that  her  ques- 
tions are  suggestive  enough  and  not  too  suggestive.  Sugges- 
tions: For  enlarging  the  pupil's  vocabulary,  for  giving  him 
fresh  thoughts  and  a  feeling  for  literary  expression,  the  teacher 
may  ask  questions  that  require  the  pupil  to  answer  in  the  words 
of  the  author ;  as,  he  may  be  asked  to  give  the  words  and  phrases 
that  describe  Rip  Van  Winkle,  Miles  Standish,  or  the  characters 
in  Snow-Bound,  or  that  make  a  scene  real  and  beautiful  to 
him.  How  does  he  know  that  Sleepy  Hollow  is  a  sleepy  place  ? 
Just  what  things  make  Ichabod  Crane  exultant  as  he  looks  over 
the  Van  Tassel  farm?  Let  him  select  the  pictures  in  the 
lesson  and  tell  in  detail  what  he  sees  in  them.  ...  He  may 
also  be  asked  to  pick  out  the  comparisons  applied  to  the  char- 
acters and  to  the  objects  in  nature  and  explain  the  point  of 
comparison.  Thus  the  pupil  may  early  come  to  a  conscious 
appreciation  of  truthful  and  effective  expression."     (pp.  60-61.) 

The  writer  has  found  by  actual  test  that  it  is  much  better 
to  have  the  questions  placed  upon  the  blackboard  than  to 
have  them  printed  at  the  end  of  the  lessons  in  the  text. 
If  the  texts  furnish  suggestive  questions  or  topics,  the 
teacher  is  advised  to  copy  them  upon  the  blackboard  for 
use  during  the  study  period.  The  alternation  of  attention 
between  the  printed  page  and  the  blackboard  tends,  un- 
doubtedly, to  introduce  a  superficial  variety  of  stimulus 
and  movement  that  helps  in  the  concentration  of  atten- 
tion. Whatever  the  explanation,  however,  there  is  no 
doubt  that  the  blackboard  questions  hold  the  attention 
more  adequately. 


THE  TECHNIQUE  OF  CLASS   INSTRUCTION  209 

After  the  pupils  have  gained  some  skill  in  studying  the  text 
Dy  means  of  suggestive  questions,  they  may  be  encouraged  to 
make  out  lists  of  questions  which  shall  embody  the  salient 
points  of  the  text.  This  is  an  extremely  serviceable  device, 
for  it  requires  that  the  pupil  study  the  text  carefully  in  order 
to  make  out  intelhgent  questions.  Occasionally,  a  pupil  hav- 
ing a  good  hst  may  be  permitted  to  "  quiz  "  the  class. 

14.  (2)  Study  Topics.  Study  questions  will  at  first  be 
detailed  and  concrete;  they  will  gradually  become  more 
and  more  condensed  and  schematic  as  the  pupil  becomes 
more  and  more  familiar  with  their  use,  until  finally  they 
develop  into  mere  statements  of  the  topics.  If  the  pupils 
are  accustomed  to  the  logical  arrangement  of  questions,  — 
main  questions,  subordinate  questions,  etc.,  —  the  logical 
arrangement  of  topics  will  not  trouble  them.  Gradually, 
also,  they  may  be  led  to  ''skeletonize"  the  lessons  for 
themselves,  at  first  writing  out  the  topics  in  logical  order 
and  later  gaining  the  ability  to  hold  the  topics  in  mind 
as  they  proceed  with  their  reading.  When  the  pupils  have 
gained  this  ability,  they  have,  of  course,  acquired  the  art 
of  study.  Proceeding  in  this  systematic  way  from  de- 
tailed and  concrete  questions  to  schematic  questions,  then 
to  topics,  the  pupil  can  hardly  fail  to  acquire  a  standard 
method  of  attacking  the  printed  page.  It  has  been  the 
writer's  experience  that,  unless  this  matter  is  taken  up 
explicitly  and  systematically,  the  progress  of  pupils  in 
all  text-book  work  will  be  slow  and  halting.^ 

*  **  There  is  a  definite  pedagogical  problem  in  teaching  to  study  .  .  . 
but  the  problem  is  being  largely  neglected  in  current  educational  practice. 
.  .  .    Pupils  should  be  taught  to  study  from  the  time  they  enter  the  pri- 


2IO  CLASSROOM    MANAGEMENT 

15.  Written  Work  in  the  Study  Period.  As  a  general 
rule,  the  work  of  the  study  period  in  text-book  subjects 
should  be  so  organized  as  to  demand  a  minimum  of  writ- 
ten work  from  the  pupil.  The  pupil  should  be  encouraged 
to  get  on  without  the  aid  of  pen  or  pencil.  This  proposal 
will  seem  quite  out  of  harmony  with  existing  practice,  for 
almost  every  study  period  in  our  pubhc  schools  is  domi- 
nated by  the  pencil  and  paper.  The  grievous  error  of  this 
practice  lies  in  the  inadequate  writing  habits  that  it  in- 
volves. It  is  generally  agreed  that  our  pupils  do  far  too 
much  writing,  and  especially  too  much  careless  writing. 
The  result  is  that  the  formation  of  good  habits  in  this 
regard  is  almost  an  impossibiUty.  The  practice  of  hold- 
ing the  attention  of  the  pupils  by  demanding  writing  is 
also  to  be  criticised  because  it  fails  to  develop  ideals  of 
silent  study  —  concentration  upon  the  "thought"  of  the 
text,  ability  to  hold  in  mind  a  long  series  of  topics  without 
resorting  to  pen  or  pencil,  ability  to  work  without  objec- 
tive aids. 

16.  (c)  The  Recitation  Lesson.  The  work  of  the  reci- 
tation should  test  both  the  efficiency  of  the  study  period 
and  the  efficiency  of  the  assignment.  In  order  to  be 
maximally  effective,  it  should  be  dominated  by  this  funda- 
mental precept :  Hold  the  pupil  rigidly  responsible  in  the 
recitation  for  whatever  tasks  were  set  for  him  in  the  assign- 

mary,  but  more  and  more  attention  should  be  given  to  the  matter  as  they 
advance  upward  in  the  grades,  and  more  attention  should  be  given  to  it 
in  the  high  school  and  college.  Here  the  'how'  to  study  becomes  at 
least  of  as  much  importance  as  the  *  what. ' "  —  W.  C.  Ruediger  :  "  How 
to  Study,"  in  Int^r-Mountain  ^di^ator,  1906,  vol.  i,  p.  i6i. 


THE   TECHNIQUE   OF   CLASS    INSTRUCTION  211 

ment.  Unless  this  principle  is  adhered  to  strictly,  the 
most  skillful  assignments  and  the  most  artful  devices  for 
the  study  period  will  be  a  waste  of  time  and  energy. 

17.  The  recitation  usually  takes  one  or  another  of  two 
forms:  (i)  the  quesHon-and-answer  recitation;  (2)  the 
topical  recitation.  The  former  is  the  simpler  in  that  the 
pupil  is  held  responsible  for  separate  facts,  not  for  holding 
in  mind  the  relations  that  bind  separate  facts  together. 
All  text-book  recitations  are  necessarily  of  the  question- 
and-answer  type  at  the  outset,  the  questions  asked  being 
detailed  and  concrete.  As  the  pupil  gains  in  proficiency, 
however,  the  questions  (which  correspond  closely  to  the 
study  questions  discussed  above)  become  more  and  more 
comprehensive,  demanding  that  the  pupil  hold  in  mind  a 
larger  and  larger  number  of  facts,  and  express  them  in  a 
connected  and  coherent  fashion.  Finally  the  recitation 
passes  over  to  the  topical  form,  in  which  the  mere  state- 
ment of  the  topic  by  the  teacher  initiates  a  full  and  com- 
plete discussion  of  that  topic  by  the  pupil.  This  type  of 
recitation  can  be  required  in  all  grades  above  the  fifth 
(and  in  some  recitations  in  the  earlier  grades),  provided 
that  the  pupils  have  had  an  adequate  training  in  the  art 
of  study. 

One  of  the  tests  of  a  teacher's  efficiency  in  the  upper  grades 
is  the  freedom  of  his  recitation  work  from  "pumping  questions." 
In  many  recitations  one  will  hear  a  series  of  questions  like 
the  following :  Who  discovered  America  ?  When  ?  Of  what 
country  was  Columbus  a  native?  What  country  aided  him 
in  discovering  America  ?    What  difficulty  did  he  have  with  his 


212  CLASSROOM    MANAGEMENT 

sailors?  etc.  Each  of  these  questions  can  be  answered  either 
by  a  single  word  or  by  a  brief  sentence.  They  require  a  mini- 
mum of  mental  activity  on  the  part  of  the  pupils.  If  one  hears 
such  questions  as  these  in  an  eighth-grade  class,  one  may  safely 
infer  that  the  teacher  is  not  thoroughly  alive  to  the  possibilities 
of  recitation  work.  It  would  be  much  better  to  ask  a  single 
question  like  this:  "Give  a  brief  account  of  the  discovery  of 
America."  If  pupils  have,  been  inadequately  trained,  it  may 
be  necessary  to  indicate  in  greater  detail  the  points  to  be  in- 
cluded in  the  discussion:  "Give  a  brief  account  of  the  dis- 
covery of  America,  telling  who  made  the  discovery,  the  country 
of  which  this  man  was  a  native,  the  country  that  sent  him  out, 
and  the  troubles  that  he  encountered."  The  pupil  is  then 
required  to  hold  the  various  points  in  mind,  and  to  express 
himself  coherently. 

1 8.  In  order  to  secure  the  attention  of  all  pupils  to  every 
topic  it  is  well  to  observe  some  simple  rules  regarding  the 
conduct  of  the  recitation :  (i)  State  the  topic  or  ask  the 
question  first,  then  wait  a  short  time  before  calling  upon  a 
pupil  to  recite.  (2)  Avoid  calling  upon  pupils  in  any 
definite  and  uniform  order;  be  sure  that  all  pupils  think 
out  an  answer  to  every  question  or  a  statement  for  every 
topic.  (3)  Occasionally  interrupt  a  pupil  before  he  has 
completed  a  recitation  and  ask  another  to  continue  the 
discussion  from  that  point.  (4)  Encourage  by  some  form 
of  commendation  all  exceptionally  good  efforts  on  the 
part  of  pupils  to  make  complete  and  coherent  statements ; 
discourage  in  some  effective  manner  all  "scamped"  or 
inadequate  work.  (5)  Do  not  help  pupils  in  the  recita- 
tion ;  if  the  entire  class  is  obscure  upon  the  point  at  issue, 


THE  TECHNIQUE  OF   CLASS   INSTRUCTION  213 

reassign  it  with  a  more  complete  explanation,  holding  the 
pupils  responsible  for  its  mastery  at  the  next  recitation; 
if  a  single  pupil  is  obscure  upon  any  given  point,  do 
not  take  class  time  to  help  him  out;  rather  provide  a 
period  when  he  can  be  given  individual  aid. 

The  last  precept  involves  individual  instruction,  which  will 
be  more  fully  discussed  in  the  following  chapter.  It  is  sufficient 
here  to  note  that  a  great  deal  of  time  is  wasted  in  recitations 
by  redeveloping  some  point  or  principle  about  which  one  pupil 
is  uncertain.  The  other  pupils,  understanding  the  principle, 
have  no  incentive  for  following  the  discussion.  The  writer 
has  observed  a  recitation  in  which  ten  minutes  were  spent  in 
clearing  up  a  point  that  one  pupil  and  only  one  had  failed  to 
grasp  in  the  previous  assignment.  There  were  twenty  pupils 
in  the  class,  not  one  of  whom  was  attentive  after  the  first  few 
minutes  of  the  redevelopment.  At  least  one  hundred  minutes 
in  the  aggregate  were  thus  wasted.  The  only  way  in  which 
to  eliminate  such  waste  is  to  provide  some  time  for  individual 
work  with  backward  pupils. 

References.  —  B.  A.  Hinsdale:  Art  of  Study,  New  York,  1900, 
ch.  x;  Seeley:  A  New  School  Management,  ch.  xvi;  Button :  School 
Management,  chs.  xi,  xii,  xiii ;  C.  De  Garmo :  Interest  and  Education, 
New  York,  1903,  chs.  xii,  xiii;  J.  A.  H.  Keith:  Elementary  Edu- 
cation, chs.  viii,  ix. 


CHAPTER  XIV 

The  "Batavia  System"  of  Class-individual 
Instruction 

I.  The  class  system,  which  has  come  to  dominate 
formal  education,  possesses  certain  advantages  over  an  in- 
dividual system  of  instruction,  (a)  It  is  more  economical 
in  its  maintenance  (and  this  is,  of  course,  the  chief  reason 
for  its  extensive  use),  (b)  It  involves  in  itself  a  certain 
educative  'nfluence  in  that  it  teaches  the  subordination 
of  individual  impulses  to  the  welfare  of  the  class  as  a 
whole,  (c)  Its  greatest  advantage,  however,  lies  in  the 
stimulus  that  is  gained  from  competition,  emulation,  and 
the  group  interests. 

'  On  the  other  hand,  the  class  system  involves  some  dis- 
advantages that  may,  under  some  conditions,  quite  over- 
balance its  desirable  qualities,  (a)  It  may  lose  sight 
entirely  of  indi\idual  dififerences,  becoming  a  "machine" 
in  the  worst  sense  of  the  term,  (b)  It  tends  to  impart 
instruction  with  reference  to  an  ideal  "average  child,"  who 
may  have  no  existence  in  reaHty.  (c)  It  may  involve  con- 
ditions that  are  injurious  to  the  health  of  the  weaker  pupils 
in  the  worry  and  overstrain  that  result  from  an  attempt 
to  keep  "up  to  grade."  (d)  It  undoubtedly  tends  to  dis- 
courage a  certain  proportion  of  pupils  and  to  keep  them 
from  continuing  with  the  work  of  the  school. 

214 


THE    "BATAVIA   system"  21$ 

2.  It  is  clear,  therefore,  that  some  form  of  compromise 
between  individual  and  class  instruction  is  essential  to  the 
best  work  of  the  school.  Furthermore,  it  is  clear  that  any 
readjustment,  to  be  practicable,  must  not  be  too  radical. 
The  existing  machinery  of  the  educational  system  must 
be  employed,  but  some  steps  should  be  taken  to  render  its 
operation  more  efficient.  A  system  of  pure  individual 
instruction  is  obviously  impracticable  and  is  also  to  be 
condemned  because  it  would  eliminate  the  stimulus  that 
comes  with  group  activity. 

It  is  hardly  necessary  to  say  that  formal  education  began 
with  what  we  now  call  individual  instruction.  As  late  as 
1843,  according  to  Landon,  there  were  still  5844  primary 
schools  in  France  organized  in  this  way:  "The  master  con- 
ducted and  taught  the  whole  school  himself,  if  of  moderate 
size,  or  a  division  where  the  school  was  too  large  for  single 
management.  He  remained  at  his  desk,  or  rostrum,  and 
called  up  the  pupils,  one  by  one,  to  repeat  the  lesson  learned, 
or  to  receive  any  help  or  explanation  needed.  .  .  .  The  teach- 
ing or  questioning  was  directed  to  each  pupil  alone,  the  rest  of 
the  children  not  participating  in  any  way  in  the  work.  In 
time  a  modification  was  introduced  in  most  cases,  a  whole 
class  being  called  up  and  the  pupils  taken  in  turn.  Even 
here,  however,  there  was  no  'class  teaching,'  as  we  understand 
the  term."  ^ 

3.  What  is  now  known  as  the  "  Batavia  system "  of 
*' class-individual"  instruction  is  perhaps  the  most  suc- 
cessful method  yet  devised  of  effecting  a  compromise 
between  the  individual  and  class  methods.    In  essence, 

*  J.  Landon:  School  Management,  Boston,  1884,  p.  119. 


2l6  CLASSROOM    MANAGEMENT 

this  system  aims  to  preserve  the  stimulus  which  comes 
from  group-instruction,  and,  at  the  same  time,  to  provide 
explicitly  and  systematically  for  whatever  extra  instruction 
the  weaker  members  of  the  class  may  need  to  keep  them 
abreast  of  the  brighter  members. 

The  Batavia  system  owes  its  origin  to  John  Kennedy,  super- 
intendent of  the  public  schools  of  Batavia,  a  small  city  in  western 
New  York.  The  "  discovery "  of  the  system  was  in  one  sense 
the  result  of  an  accident.  The  older  school  buildings  of 
Batavia  were  constructed  with  classrooms  capable  of  seating 
from  sixty  to  seventy  pupils.  In  1898  it  was  thought  necessary 
to  employ  an  additional  teacher  in  order  to  accommodate  an 
increase  in  the  number  of  pupils.  The  rooms,  however,  were 
aU  occupied,  and  it  did  not  seem  advisable  at  the  time  to  con- 
struct a  new  building.  Mr.  Kennedy  proposed  placing  the 
additional  teacher  in  one  of  the  larger  classrooms,  and  then 
filling  this  classroom  to  the  limit  of  its  seating  capacity.  He 
suggested  that  one  of  the  teachers  could  take  charge  of  the 
class  work,  while  the  other  could  look  after  the  needs  of  indi- 
vidual pupils.  The  suggestion  was  adopted  as  an  experiment. 
The  results  were  so  unexpectedly  good,  that  other  large  class- 
rooms were  supplied  with  two  teachers  under  the  same  divi- 
sion of  labor.  A  marked  improvement  was  noted  in  all  of 
these  cases,  and  soon  the  system  of  "class-individual"  instruc- 
tion was  made  general  throughout  the  city. 

4.  The  virtues  of  the  Batavia  system  may  be  summarized 
as  follows:  (i)  It  makes  individual  instruction  a  definite 
part  of  the  regular  school  work.  In  nearly  every  school 
individual  instruction  finds  a  place,  but  not  a  definite 
place;  the  teacher  attempts  to  "work  up"  the  weaker 
pupils  after  school,  or  at  such  moments  as  he  may  snatch 


THE    "BATAVIA   system"  21 7 

during  the  regular  school  session.  The  Batavia  system 
makes  individual  instruction  coordinate  in  importance 
with  class  instruction,  assigning  it  a  definite  place  upon 
the  daily  program,  and  subjecting  it  to  a  systematic  and 
orderly  treatment. 

(2)  The  Batavia  system  provides  that  individual  instruc- 
tion shall  be  given  by  teachers  who  are  just  as  competent 
as  those  giving  class  instruction.  In  other  words,  the  work 
of  individual  instruction  is  not  given  over  to  novices  or 
apprentices.  It  is  not  intrusted  to  pupil-teachers  or 
monitors  as  in  the  case  of  the  Bell-Lancaster  system,  which 
had  so  wide  a  vogue  in  England  a  century  ago. 

(3)  The  Batavia  system  requires  the  development  of  a 
technique  of  individual  instruction  which  differs  in  many 
respects  from  the  technique  of  class  instruction,  and 
which  is  absolutely  necessary  to  the  success  of  the  system. 
This  special  technique  is  governed  by  two  general  prin- 
ciples: (a)  The  initiative  in  individual  instruction  must 
always  be  taken  by  the  teacher;  that  is,  the  pupil  is  not 
permitted  to  ask  for  aid,  but  the  teacher  must  discover 
his  weakness  and  proffer  aid.  (b)  All  individual  instruc- 
tion must  be  given  by  the  development  method;  that  is, 
a  weak  pupil  is  strengthened  by  helping  him  to  help  him- 
self;  direct  instruction  is  forbidden. 

5.  These  principles  are  intended  to  safeguard  individual 
instruction  against  the  danger  by  which  it  is  very  obviously 
menaced;  namely,  that  the  weaker  pupils  will  be  still 
further  weakened  by  a  "coaching"  process  that  does 
nothing  whatsoever  for  their  real  education.     The  Batavia 


2l8  CLASSROOM    MANAGEMENT 

system  without  the  check  of  some  such  principles  as  these 
would  be  apt  to  degenerate  into  a  most  pernicious  form  of 
"soft  pedagogy."  In  the  Batavia  schools  this  tendency 
is  still  further  checked  by  a  rigid  examination  system. 
Tests  are  prepared  by  the  superintendent  at  the  close  of 
each  term,  and  all  promotions  are  made  upon  the  basis  of 
these  tests.  This  examination  system  operates  through  all 
the  grades.  It  should  also  be  remarked  that  the  *'form" 
work  is  strongly  emphasized  in  the  Batavia  schools; 
reading,  spelling,  arithmetic,  and  formal  language  work 
are  all  undertaken  very  strenuously  and  with  noticeably 
good  results.  This  pohcy  would  also  tend  to  check  any 
weakening  or  "softening"  influences  that  may  be  inherent 
in  individual  instruction. 

6.  The  main  argument  in  favor  of  the  system,  however, 
lies  in  the  fact  that  it  actually  accomphshes  (in  the  Batavia 
schools,  at  least)  that  which  it  sets  out  to  accompHsh.  The 
"backward  pupil"  is  ehminated,  not  by  casting  him  out  of 
school,  but  by  developing  him  up  to  the  level  of  the  brighter 
pupils.  Some  good  results  may  be  found  in  almost  every 
school,  but  in  the  Batavia  schools  the  results  are  uniformly 
good  with  all  pupils.  Every  pupil,  so  far  as  the  visitor 
can  learn,  is  either  "up  to  grade"  or  practically  so,  for 
the  moment  that  he  begins  to  lose  ground,  the  individual 
recitation  period  brings  him  up.  At  the  present  time, 
even  under  the  rigid  system  of  final  examinations,  there 
are  practically  no  failures  in  promotion.  Superintendent 
Kennedy  also  asserts  that  a  large  number  of  pupils  are 
able  to  do  two  years'  work  in  one,  and  that,  in  at  least  two 


THE    "BATAVIA   SYSTEM"  219 

instances,  an  entire  class  has  done  the  work  of  the 
seventh  and  eighth  grades  in  a  single  year. 

Other  evidences  of  the  success  of  the  system  are  the  high 
per  cent  of  attendance,  the  large  number  of  pupils  who 
remain  in  school  through  the  full  course,  the  large  pro- 
portion of  boys  in  the  high  school  (over  fifty  per  cent),  and 
the  freedom  of  the  pupils  and  teachers  from  nervous  dis- 
orders —  a  condition  that  is  attributed  to  the  fact  that  the 
system  largely  ehminates  the  "worry"  that  is  so  often 
involved  in  the  common  system. 

7.  Applicability  oj  the  Batavia  System.  To  apply  the 
Batavia  system  to  the  work  of  any  school,  it  is  necessary  to 
take  but  two  steps:  (i)  provide  definite  periods  for  indi- 
vidual instruction;  (2)  impart  individual  instruction  ac- 
cording to  the  principles  named  above.  On  the!  surface, 
the  first  condition  may  perhaps  seem  the  more  difficult  of 
fulfillment ;  as  a  matter  of  fact,  it  is  by  far  the  simpler  of 
the  two.  Contrary  to  general  behef,  the  Batavia  system 
does  not  demand  the  presence  of  two  teachers  in  every 
classroom.  The  general  method  can  be  applied  in  one- 
teacher  rooms,  and  is  so  appUed  in  more  than  half  of  the 
Batavia  classrooms. 

The  apphcation  of  the  system  to  one-teacher  rooms  is 
made  possible  by  what  may  be  termed  a  "doubly-alter- 
nating" program.  For  example,  if  the  regular  program 
provides  for  five  recitation  periods  each  week  in  geography, 
each  alternate  recitation  period  is  given  over  to  the  indi- 
vidual instruction  of  the  weaker  members  of  the  class.  K 
the  recitation  period  to-day  is  given  over  to  class  work,  thq 


220 


CLASSROOM    MANAGEMENT 


recitation  period  to-morrow  will  be  given  over  to  indi- 
vidual instruction ;  the  pupils  requiring  individual  instruc- 
tion are  called  to  the  teacher's  desk  one  at  a  time,  the  other 
pupils  meanwhile  working  independently  at  their  seats  as 
they  would  during  the  study  period. 

The  double  alternation  is  provided  in  this  way:  if  the 
geography  recitation  period  of  to-day  is  given  over  to 
individual  work,  the  following  recitation  period  of  to-day, 
say  in  arithmetic,  will  be  given  over  to  class  work;  that 
is,  under  normal  conditions,  there  will  not  be  two  indi- 
vidual periods  in  immediate  succession. 

The  illustrative  program  given  on  page  63  may  be  arranged 
for  individual  work  as  follows.  (The  morning  periods  alone 
are  given  here.) 


Period 

Dura- 
tion 

"A"  Class 

"B"  Class 

9:00-  9: 10 

10 

Opening  exercises 

Opening  exercises 

9: 10-  9:  20 

10 

S.  spelling 

S.  spelling 

9:20-  9:30 

10 

R.  spelling  (indiv.) 

R.  speUing  (indiv.) 

9:30-  9:55 

25 

R.  reading  (class) 

S.  arithmetic 

9:55-10:15 

20 

S.  arithmetic 

R.  arithmetic  (class) 

10: 15-10:30 

IS 

Writing 

Writing 

10:30-10:45 

IS 

Recess 

Recess 

10:  45-11: 10 

25 

R.  arithmetic  (indiv.) 

S.  reading 

11:  lo-ii: 30 

20 

S.  geography 

R.  reading  (indiv.) 

11:  30-11: 50 

20 

R.  geography  (class) 

S.  geography 

11: 50-12: 00 

10 

Physical  culture 

Physical  culture 

"Indiv.,"  individual  recitation;  "class,"  class  recitation;  "S,"  study 
period;  "R,"  recitation  period. 


THE    "BATAVIA   SYSTEM"  221 

On  the  following  day  the  subjects  designated  as  individual 
recitation  periods  in  the  above  program  will  be  devoted  to  class 
recitations,  and  vice  versa. 

Under  this  plan  of  double  alternation  the  system  may 
be  applied  to  the  work  of  any  classroom,  irrespective  of 
the  number  of  classes  in  the  room  or  of  the  number  of 
recitation  periods  of  the  day.  Thus  it  is  just  as  appli- 
cable to  the  ungraded  rural  school  as  to  the  graded  city 
school. 

It  would,  of  course,  be  possible  to  introduce  other  forms  of 
alternation;  thus  every  third  recitation  period  may  be  given 
over  to  individual  work,  or  every  fifth  period.  As  long  as  a 
definite  school  period  is  explicitly  assigned  for  individual  work, 
the  essential  condition  of  the  Batavia  system  has  been  fulfilled. 
The  results  in  Batavia  would  seem  to  indicate,  however,  that 
the  best  results  are  obtained  where  the  recitation  periods  are 
equally  divided  between  class  and  individual  recitations. 

8.  One  of  the  most  serious  drawbacks  to  the  application 
of  the  system  in  one-teacher  classrooms  is  the  difficulty  of 
supplying  independent  work  for  the  pupils  who  are  not 
undergoing  individual  instruction.  It  will  be  noted  that 
the  difficulties  of  the  study  period  (already  serious  enough) 
are  greatly  augmented  by  this  system.  The  need,  there- 
fore, of  careful  assignments  of  seat  work  for  the  majority 
of  the  class  is  paramount,  and  for  this  reason  a  well- 
developed  technique  of  class  instruction,  especially  with 
reference  to  the  assignment,  is  obviously  of  great  impor- 
tance in  the  appUcation  of  the  Batavia  system.  Care 
must  also  be  taken  not  to  overemphasize  written  work, 


222  CLASSROOM    MANAGEMENT 

which  will  be  the  line  of   least   resistance  in  supplying 
independent  tasks. 

The  following  suggestions  have  been  made  by  Superintendent 
Kennedy  *  as  possible  guides  for  teachers  who  introduce  his 
system  into  their  schools :  — 

"(i)  Do  not  give  individual  instruction  on  forthcoming 
lessons.     Train  the  children  to  be  self-reliant  lesson  getters. 

"  (2)  Do  not  tell  the  child  anything,  but  see  that  he  knows 
it.  .  .  .  The  danger  of  individual  teaching  is  that  it  may  be 
treated  as  a  labor-saving  device. 

"(3)  Do  not  do  anything  for  the  child  but  see  that  he  does 
it.  Individual  teaching  is  not  to  level  mountains.  It  is  to 
make  brave  and  capable  mountain  climbers.  Correct  indi- 
vidual teaching  treats  the  difficulty  (or  mountain)  as  an  educa- 
tional opportunity." 

These  restrictions  should  be  understood  as  applying  solely 
to  individual  instruction,  and  stand  as  safeguards  against  the 
dangers  of  such  instruction.  They  should  not  be  interpreted 
to  mean  that  the  teacher  is  to  do  no  direct  teaching,  but  rather 
that  this  would  best  be  confined  to  class  work.  The  danger  in 
individual  instruction  is  to  give  too  much  help;  the  danger 
in  class  instruction  is  to  give  too  little  —  especially  in  the 
assignment  of  independent  work. 

The  following  suggestions  are  taken  from  a  circular  issued 
by  a  Minnesota  superintendent  who  recently  introduced  the 
Batavia  system  into  his  schools :  — 

"Keep  the  guiding  aims  steadily  in  view. 

**See  that  assignments  of  work  for  the  class  in  the  individual 
period  are  clear  and  definite.  Assignments  of  work  should 
always  provide  for  methods  of  work  as  well  as  amount. 

"Use  the  individual  period  to  give  the  pupil  a  grasp  of  prin- 
ciples, not  to  aid  him  in  getting  his  next  lesson. 

*  J.  Kennedy,  in  Educational  Work,  1906,  vol.  ii,  p.  49. 


THE    "BAT A VI A   SYSTEM  '  223 

**Make  notes  in  the  recitation  period,  and,  at  other  times,  of 
help  needed.  Make  notes  at  other  times  as  to  help  given  and 
pupils'  characteristics. 

"Use  the  individual  instruction  period  to  bring  into  line 
pupils  who  have  been  absent. 

"Do  not  hurry  in  attempting  to  help  too  many  pupils  in  one 
period. 

"Make  the  plan  for  yourself  a  means  of  growth  in  power 
and  not  merely  the  adoption  of  a  device."  * 

9.  It  may  be  concluded  that,  while  the  Batavia  system 
is  still  in  the  experimental  stage,  it  promises  to  effect  a  suc- 
cessful compromise  between  class  and  individual  instruc- 
tion, preserving  the  valuable  features  of  each  and  elimi- 
nating some  of  the  disadvantages  of  both.  It  must, 
however,  be  applied  with  a  full  recognition  of  its  pitfalls. 
It  requires  teachers  of  skill  and  scholarship  for  its  effec- 
tive application.  It  demands  the  elaboration  of  a  special 
technique  of  individual  instruction,  and  requires  that  this 
be  combined  with  an  equally  effective  and  specialized 
technique  of  class  instruction.  It  may  eliminate  some  of 
the  worry  incidental  to  the  class  system,  but  it  must  not 
be  looked  upon  as  a  "royal  road  to  learning,"  nor  must 
it  be  thought  of  as  eliminating  in  any  degree  the  struggle 
and  effort  that  are  always  essential  to  mental  growth.  Its 
value  will  be  greatest  in  those  schools  that  are  domi- 
nated by  high  ideals  of  scholarship ;  and  least  in  schools 
that  are  already  committed  to  "  soft  pedagogy." 

*  S.  Smyser:  "  Batavia  Plan  Circular,"  reprinted  in  Educational  Workf 
1906,  vol.  ii,  p.  60. 


224  CLASSROOM    MANAGEMENT 

References. — Landon:  School  Management, -pp.  iiy-i6s',  But- 
ton :  School  Management,  ch.  vi ;  Thomdike :  Principles  of  Teaching) 
ch.  vi ;  P.  W.  Search :  The  Ideal  School,  New  York,  1905,  chs.  i,  iii,  vii ; 
J.  Kennedy:  "The  Need  of  Individual  Instruction,"  in  Addresses 
and  Proceedings,  National  Educational  Association,  1901,  pp.  295- 
300,  with  discussions  of  Mr.  Kennedy's  paper  by  J.  F.  Millspaugh, 
G.  Stanley  Hall,  A.  K.  Whitcomb,  Delos  Fall,  T.  M.  Balliet,  and 
J.  Kennedy,  pp.  301-303;  Ediicational  Work,  a  monthly  journal 
devoted  to  the  Batavia  system,  edited  by  W.  H.  Holmes,  Jr.,  and 
published  at  Worcester,  Mass. 


CHAPTER  XV 
Testing  Results 

I.  The  ultimate  test  of  the  efficiency  of  effort  is  the 
result  of  effort.  Unhappily  this  test  is  seldom  appHed  to 
the  work  of  teaching.  We  judge  the  teacher  by  the 
process  rather  than  by  the  product,  and  we  introduce  a 
number  of  extraneous  criteria  to  hide  the  absence  of  a 
real  criterion.  We  watch  the  way  in  which  he  conducts 
a  recitation,  note  how  many  sHps  he  makes  in  his  diction 
and  syntax,  inspect  his  personal  appearance,  ask  of  what 
school  he  is  a  graduate  and  how  many  degrees  he  pos- 
sesses, inquire  into  his  moral  character,  determine  his 
church  membership,  and  judge  him  to  be  a  good  or  a  poor 
teacher  according  to  our  findings.  All  of  these  queries 
may  have  their  place  in  the  estimation  of  any  teacher's 
worth,  but  they  do  not  strike  the  most  salient,  the  most 
vital,  point  at  issue.  That  point  is  simply  this:  does  he 
"make  good"  in  results?  Does  he  do  the  thing  that  he 
sets  out  to  do,  and  does  he  do  it  well  ? 

It  will  be  objected  that  this  is  an  impossible  criterion,  — 
that  the  influences  of  the  teacher's  work  can  be  determined 
only  after  his  pupils  have  attained  maturity  and  have 
demonstrated  their  fitness  or  unfitness  for  the  duties  of 
life;  and  at  that  time  who  can  lay  the  responsibihty  of 
failure  to  your  door  or  mine  ?  Or  perhaps  it  will  be  urged 
Q  325 


226  CLASSROOM    MANAGEMENT 

that  the  real  results  of  teaching  are  too  complex  and  in- 
tangible ever  to  be  weighed  or  measured  by  any  method 
that  finite  mind  can  devise.  Both  of  these  objections  must, 
in  some  measure,  be  sustained,  and  yet  the  situation  is  not 
nearly  so  hopeless  as  either  statement  would  make  it  appear. 

2.  Taking  either  social  eflBciency  or  "moral  character" 
as  the  ultimate  end  of  education  (and,  from  the  practical 
standpoint,  the  two  may  be  considered  as  synonymous), 
it  is  clear  that  the  product  of  the  school  must  fulfill  some 
fairly  definite  and  tangible  conditions  if  his  education  is 
to  be  adjudged  successful. 

(a)  In  the  first  place,  he  must  possess  a  certain  capital 
of  habit  —  or,  better,  he  must  possess  a  certain  number 
of  habits.  These  are  essential  to  all  who  are  to  live  a  so- 
cial life  among  other  civiHzed  men  and  women.  There  is 
nothing  indefinite  or  intangible  about  this  requirement. 
The  necessary  habits  can  be  labeled  and  enumerated,  and 
their  formation  during  childhood  can  be  prosecuted  sys- 
tematically and  in  graded  steps,  so  that,  at  the  end  of  each 
year,  each  month,  each  week,  even,  the  teacher  may  test 
with  reasonable  accuracy  his  work  in  this  respect. 

3.  (6)  In  the  second  place,  the  product  of  the  school 
must  possess  a  certain  capital  of  knowledge,  —  a  basis 
in  facts  and  principles  for  the  judgments  that  will  be 
necessary  in  the  meeting  and  solving  of  the  problems  of 
civiHzed  Hfe.  Of  what  facts  and  principles  this  knowl- 
edge should  best  consist,  educators  are.  not  in  entire  agree- 
ment. But  this  disagreement  does  not  prevent  whatever 
teaching  may  be  devoted  to  the  impressing  of  facts  and 


TESTING    RESULTS  227 

principles  from  being  tested  with  a  fair  degree  of  accuracy, 
for  in  this  field,  too,  the  various  items  can  be  enumerated 
and  labeled,  and  presented  systematically  and  in  graded 
steps.  The  pupil  may  be  examined  from  week  to  week, 
or  from  month  to  month,  or  from  year  to  year,  in  respect 
of  his  growth  and  degree  of  attainment.  The  difficulties 
are  more  numerous  than  in  the  case  of  habit,  but  they  are 
not  insurmountable;  for,  while  the  situation  is  intricate 
and  involved,  it  permits  of  analysis  and  so  makes  possible 
a  systematic  attack. 

4.  (c)  Finally,  every  individual  who  comes  out  of  the 
school  must  possess  a  certain  capital  of  ideals  —  certain 
standards  and  criteria  which  are  sufficiently  colored  with 
emotion  to  make  them  directive  over  his  conduct.  It  is 
in  attempting  to  meet  this  requirement  that  the  actual 
results  of  teaching  are  apt  to  be  so  intangible  and  difficult 
of  evaluation.  And  yet  here  one  can  at  least  label  and 
enumerate  the  desired  quahties.  One  may  safely  say, 
for  example,  that  the  pupil  must  be  inspired  with  ideals  of 
industry,  accuracy,  carefulness,  steadfastness,  patriotism, 
culture,  cleanliness,  truth,  self-sacrifice,  social  service,  and 
personal  honor.  It  is  true  that  one  cannot  tell  in  any 
specific  case  whether  all  or  any  of  these  ideals  have  been 
effectively  implanted ;  a  youth  may  give  every  evidence  of 
being  imbued  with  them,  and  still  prove  himself  unfaithful 
in  the  ultimate  test. 

And  yet,  although  the  situation  here  is  much  more  com- 
plex and  involved  than  in  the  two  preceding  instances,  it 
is  still  far  from  hopeless.     We  may  be  tolerably  certain  of 


228  CLASSROOM    MANAGEMENT 

this,  at  least :  the  great  ideals  have  their  origin  in  specific 
habits,  and  habits  can  be  rigidly  tested.  Farther  than 
this,  perhaps,  we  may  not  go,  except  to  do  all  in  our  power 
to  generahze  the  specific  habits  on  the  basis  of  ideals 
through  whatever  means  may  be  at  our  command,  — 
literature,  history,  art,  biography,  objective  example. 
But  the  necessary  basis  of  habit  is  under  our  control,  and 
without  that  all  else  will  be  but  little  more  than  senti- 
mental froth. 

The  common  acceptance  of  "moral  character"  as  the  aim 
of  education  has  this  defect:  it  is  so  large  a  conception  that 
those  who  propose  it  as  the  aim  of  education  are  apt  to  become 
confused  in  determining  the  means  that  will  work  best  toward 
its  attainment.  And  yet  moral  character  certainly  presupposes 
as  its  basis  a  multitude  of  effective  specific  habits.  To  para- 
phrase an  ancient  proverb  one  may  safely  say,  "Take  care  of 
the  habits,  and  moral  character  will  take  care  of  itself."  This 
is  not  quite  true,  of  course,  for  the  factor  of  ideals  must  be 
reckoned  with;  but  it  is  at  least  as  true  as  the  proverb  which 
it  paraphrases  —  and  that  is  saying  a  great  deal.  But  again,  one 
must  guard  against  the  danger  of  using  the  term  "habit"  in 
too  general  a  fashion.  Character  or  social  efficiency  does  not 
rest  upon  habit  in  general  nor  upon  generalized  habit;  it 
rests  upon  a  vast  number  of  little,  specific  habits:  the  habit 
of  saying  "four"  when  the  formula  "two  times  two  "  is  given; 
the  habit  of  saying  "I  shall"  when  simple  futurity  is  to  be 
implied;  the  habit  of  bathing  at  regular  intervals ;  of  brushing 
one's  teeth;  of  blackening  one's  shoes;  of  speaking  distinctly; 
of  speaking  in  a  pleasant  tone;  of  speaking  courteously;  of 
not  speaking  at  all  when  others  are  speaking ;  of  moving  grace- 
fully; of  remaining  motionless  under  certain  conditions;  of 
writing  legibly;  of  taking  off  one's  hat  to  one's  elders  and  to 


TESTING    RESULTS  229 

ladies;  of  giving  precedence  to  women  when  passing  through 
a  doorway;  of  standing  erect  and  looking  one's  interlocutor  in 
the  eye;  of  working  steadfastly  at  this  task  or  that  until  it  is 
completed;  of  breathing  properly;  of  repressing  the  impulse 
to  yawn,  the  impulse  to  strike,  and  a  hundred  other  impulses 
that  nature  never  intended  to  be  repressed,  and  yet  the  habitual 
repression  of  which  is  essential  to  civilized  life.  One  could 
perhaps  be  "moral"  if  some  of  these  habits  were  lacking; 
we  know  that  one  could  not  be  socially  efficient,  and  we  doubt 
whether  one  could  be  moral  if  all  of  these  habits  had  failed  of 
development. 

5.  It  may  be  concluded,  therefore,  that,  in  habit-build- 
ing and  in  the  imparting  of  knowledge,  the  efficiency  of 
teaching  can  be  accurately  and  adequately  tested  at  stated 
intervals  by  any  teacher.  And  it  may  further  be  concluded 
that,  since  ideals  must  operate  on  a  basis  of  habit,  even  this 
phase  of  the  educative  process  is  not  to  be  altogether  ex- 
cluded from  the  sphere  of  the  educational  measuring  rod. 
It  now  remains  to  state  explicitly  how  these  tests  may  be 
made  and  what  standards  the  teacher  shall  employ  in  any 
given  case. 

6.  Testing  the  Efficiency  of  Habit-building,  (a)  Purely 
Physical  Habits.  The  prime  essential  in  testing  the 
growth  of  any  specific  habit  is  to  preserve  some  record 
of  results  at  different  stages.  This  is  sometimes  easily 
accomplished,  particularly  in  cases  where  growth  in  power 
of  written  expression  is  concerned.  It  is  more  difficult 
in  cases  where  the  teacher  must  trust  to  mental  images  of 
former  conditions.  For  example,  in  making  correct  pos- 
ture either  in  sitting  or  standing  a  matter  of  habit,  it  is 


230  CLASSROOM    MANAGEMENT 

often  impossible  to  determine  how  much  gain  has  been 
made,  owing  to  the  fact  that  the  older  conditions  are  not 
present  and  cannot  be  recalled  with  sufficient  vividness 
to  serve  the  purposes  of  comparison. 

In  a  case  of  this  sort,  it  is  well  for  the  teacher  to  supply 
himself  with  diagrams  showing  the  proper  position,  and 
especially  with  photographs  of  classrooms  where  the  pupils 
are  sitting  properly.  These  will  furnish  definite  standards 
or  ideals  toward  which  effort  may  be  directed.  For  one 
who  visualizes  freely,  nothing  is  better  than  to  inspect 
some  school  that  is  noted  for  its  excellence  in  this  particular. 

The  efficiency  of  habit-building,  however,  is  not  alto- 
gether dependent  upon  the  existence  of  these  standards 
or  ideals.  One  must  be  certain  that  one's  pupils  are 
progressing  toward  the  desired  end.  If  the  teacher  has 
the  standard  well  in  mind,  he  will  correct  the  pupils  who 
assume  inadequate  positions.  But  if  habit-building  is  to 
be  effective,  it  is  manifest  that  these  corrections  must 
become  fewer  and  fewer  in  number  as  practice  continues. 
It  is  well,  therefore,  to  keep  a  simple  record  of  the  number 
of  pupils  that  need  correction  each  day,  and  of  the  number 
of  times  each  day  that  any  particular  pupil  requires  cor- 
rection. This  record  need  not  involve  any  very  elaborate 
bookkeeping.  A  check  mark  may  be  made  on  a  pad 
whenever  a  correction  is  made,  and  the  names  of  the  more 
troublesome  cases  can  also  be  written  upon  this  pad  and 
checked  against.  This  plan  is  effective  in  that  it  keeps 
the  teacher  informed  as  to  the  efficiency  of  his  efforts.  If 
the  habits  are  not  being  formed,  —  if  corrections  seemingly 


TESTING    RESULTS  23 1 

have  no  effect,  —  it  is  obvious  that  other  methods  must  be 
employed. 

The  beginning  teacher  is  apt,  at  the  outset,  to  consider  the 
habits  of  the  pupils  as  very  inadequate  and  to  criticise  the 
preceding  teacher  for  leaving  pupils  in  this  condition.  Later 
in  the  term,  the  habits  seem  very  much  more  commendable, 
and  the  teacher  congratulates  himself  on  the  resuhs.  Very 
frequently  both  judgments  are  unjust  and  inconsistent  with 
the  real  facts.  As  the  teacher  comes  to  feel  more  and  more 
that  he  is  responsible  for  existing  conditions,  he  tends  unwit- 
tingly to  emphasize  the  good  points  and  to  overlook  those  that 
are  not  so  good.  It  is  also  true  that  pupils  seldom  do  their  best 
under  a  strange'jteacher.  A  certain  degree  of  acquaintance  must 
be  gained  before  they  can  come  up  to  their  former  standards. 

7.  In  improving  line-movement  and  similar  mechanics 
of  the  classroom,  standards  are  best  gained  by  visiting 
schools  that  are  especially  good  in  this  particular.  In 
almost  every  city  system  there  are  one  or  two  schools 
that  enjoy  a  local  reputation  for  good  "mechanics.*'  It 
is  manifestly  impossible  to  reduce  such  standards  to  the 
form  of  pictures  or  diagrams.  While  the  routine  is  in 
process  of  crystallization,  the  teacher  should  reflect  every 
day  upon  the  degree  of  progress  that  has  been  made.  If 
individual  pupils  are  admonished  for  failure  to  do  their 
part  in  preserving  Une-formation,  some  record  should  be 
made  of  the  cases,  and  repetitions  of  such  delinquencies 
should  cause  the  teacher  to  look  carefully  into  his  methods. 
Where  Une-movements  are  a  constant  source  of  worry  to 
the  teacher,  month  in  and  month  out,  something  is  radically 
wrong  with  the  process. 


232  CLASSROOM    MANAGEMENT 

8.  (b)  Written  Work.  To  secure  good  written  work,  -^ 
neat,  legible,  well  arranged,  —  both  on  paper  and  at  the 
blackboard,  should  be  one  of  the  earhest  endeavors  of  the 
beginning  teacher.  Again  the  first  requisite  is  an  adequate 
standard  for  testing  results.  The  visitation  of  schools  where 
good  written  work  is  done  will  generally  furnish  one  with 
these  in  abundance;  the  aim  should  be,  however,  either 
to  secure  papers  that  represent  ^' first  drafts"  of  the  pupils* 
work  or  to  have  rewritten  and  corrected  papers  distinctly 
marked,  so  that  one  will  not  confuse  them  with  "first 
drafts."  In  testing  the  eflficiency  of  habit-building  in  this 
particular,  it  is  the  abihty  of  the  pupil  to  produce  a  credit- 
able paper  on  the  first  writing  that  is  important.  Almost 
every  pupil  can  obtain  good  results  if  given  time  enough 
and  permitted  to  concentrate  his  attention  upon  form ;  but 
the  very  thing  that  we  wish  to  develop  is  the  capacity  to 
do  neat,  legible,  and  well-arranged  work  quickly  and  while 
the  attention  is  concentrated  upon  content.  This  is  pos- 
sible, however,  only  through  formal  exercises  in  which 
attention  to  formal  matters  is  the  main  consideration,  but 
the  results  of  such  drill  should  always  be  tested  by  refer- 
ence to  work  in  which  the  pupil  uses  the  form  as  a  means 
to  an  end. 

This  is  a  matter  of  extreme  importance  in  the  elementary 
school.  If  one  attempts  to  cultivate  habits  of  neatness,  legi- 
bility, and  good  order  in  arithmetic  or  language  work,  one 
will  always  notice  this  phenomenon :  after  a  certain  degree  of 
excellence  has  been  attained  through  exercises  that  are  more 
or  less  formal  (that  is,  through  exercises  in  which  the  content 


TESTING    RESULTS  233 

is  SO  familiar  that  the  pupil  may  freely  concentrate  upon  the 
form)  there  will  be  a  falling  off  in  formal  excellence  whenever 
a  new  subject  is  taken  up  requiring  attention  to  content.  For 
example,  third -grade  pupils  are  cautioned  to  "take  pains" 
with  their  papers  in  arithmetic.  As  long  as  the  problems  are 
those  with  which  they  are  familiar,  a  noticeable  improvement 
will  be  made  in  form;  the  moment  a  new  and  difficult  prin- 
ciple is  introduced,  however,  the  form  immediately  "falls  oflf," 
but  under  the  stimulus  of  the  teacher's  cautions  it  "picks  up" 
as  the  pupil  gains  greater  and  greater  proficiency  in  the  new 
process.  The  explanation  is  probably  to  be  sought  in  the 
psychology  of  attention.  Attention  cannot  be  concentrated 
upon  two  dissimilar  things  or  processes  or  adjustments  at  the 
same  time;  attention  to  one  thing  always  involves  inattention 
to  others. 

This  is  not  to  imply,  however,  that  the  formal  drills  have 
been  unavailing.  The  important  point  is  this:  the  teacher 
should  assure  himself  that  each  new  setback  still  represents  an 
advance  over  the  last  setback.  When  the  pupils  take  up  long 
division,  for  example,  the  papers  for  some  little  time  may  be 
poorer  in  appearance  than  they  were  just  before  long  division 
was  introduced;  but  they  should  be  better  than  the  papers 
immediately  following  the  introduction  of  the  last  new  princi- 
ple, although  these  in  turn  were  of  lower  standard  than  those 
immediately  preceding  the  introduction  of  the  principle.^ 

9.  To  test  the  results  of  habit-building  in  written  work, 
therefore,  it  is  well  to  keep  complete  sets  of  papers  in  all 
subjects  and  to  compare  these  frequently  in  order  to  assure 

*  This  is  one  of  the  most  interesting  principles  that  the  concrete  study 
of  school  work  reveals.  The  writer  has  found  the  phenomenon  so  con- 
stant in  its  appearance  under  the  conditions  mentioned  that  he  would 
respectfully  suggest  the  general  field  as  one  that  would  amply  repay 
scientific  investigation  by  the  expert  educational  psychologist. 


234  CLASSROOM    MANAGEMENT 

one's  self  that  progress  is  being  made.  The  most  con- 
venient plan  is  to  arrange  each  pupil's  work  in  bundles, 
beginning  with  the  earhest  efforts.  As  each  new  paper 
is  added  to  the  bundle,  it  can  be  carefully  compared  with 
those  preceding,  and  the  advance  noted.  When  new 
content  is  introduced,  the  paper  immediately  following 
the  last  introduction  of  new  content  should  be  compared 
with  it.  The  advance  each  day  will,  of  course,  be  gradual 
—  often  quite  unnoticeable  —  consequently  it  is  well 
occasionally  to  take  papers  that  are  a  month  or  two 
months  apart,  where  the  advancement  will  be  more  accu- 
rately measurable.^  If  no  advancement  can  be  detected, 
or  if  there  is  a  positive  retrogression,  the  case  is  one 
that  calls  for  an  immediate  and  drastic  change  of  method. 

Professor  Kirkpatrick  has  voiced  the  same  caution  in  the 
following  words:  *'In  directing  the  formation  of  habits  in 
which  improvement  with  practice  is  desired,  as  in  learning  to 
write  and  draw,  the  teacher  should  be  satisfied  with  the  work 
as  long  as  it  shows  improvement,  but  should  be  very  careful 
when  improvement  stops,  because  one  of  two  undesirable 
results  is  likely  to  appear:  either  the  habit  with  its  imperfect 
execution  becomes  fixed  by  repetition,  so  that  after  a  time  it  is 
almost  impossible  to  change  it;  or  else,  when  the  volitional 
effort  to  do  good  work  decreases,  the  execution  begins  to  revert 
back  to  a  less  developed  stage  at  which  it  may  then  become 
fixed.'*  2 

*  Sets  of  such  papers  would  form  excellent  exhibits  for  educational 
meetings,  expositions,  etc.  As  indices  of  actual  school  work,  they  would 
be  far  more  valuable  than  the  laboriously  rewritten  and  shamelessly 
"cooked"  results  that  commonly  make  up  such  exhibits. 

2  E.  A.  Kirkpatrick;  Fundamentals  of  Child  Study,  pp.  351  f. 


TESTING    RESULTS'  235 

10.  Blackboard  Work.  Progress  in  adequate  habits  of 
blackboard  work  is  rather  more  dilG&cult  to  measure,  owing 
to  the  impracticabihty  of  keeping  former  results  for  com- 
parison. Standards  and  ideals  can,  however,  be  gained 
from  inspection  of  good  schools,  and  records  can  be  kept 
of  the  corrections  that  are  necessary.  An  important  ele- 
ment in  securing  good  blackboard  results  is  to  discourage 
the  frequent  use  of  the  eraser.  It  is  safe  to  lay  down  a 
general  rule  that  the  eraser  should  not  be  used  except  to 
clean  the  board  at  the  conclusion  of  the  exercise. 

11.  {c)  Habits  0}  Speech.  In  testing  habit-building 
in  oral  expression  it  is  again  difficult  to  make  accurate 
measurements  of  progress.  The  best  plan  is  to  take  up 
one  point  at  a  time,  beginning,  say,  with  clear  enunciation 
and  good  articulation.  If  corrections  for  lapses  in  these 
particulars  do  not  decrease  daily,  the  method  employed  is 
obviously  inejffective.  With  mispronunciations  and  errors 
in  construction,  a  more  accurate  record  can  be  made  of  the 
progress.  If  one  error  is  attacked  at  a  time,  pupils  who 
need  constant  correction  can  be  noted  and  perhaps  sub- 
jected to  individual  instruction.  In  any  case,  these 
specific  habits  should  be  taken  up  systematically  and 
drilled  upon  until  perfect  automatism  results.  A  good 
course  of  study  usually  enumerates  the  common  errors 
in  speech  that  are  to  be  replaced  each  term  with  effective 
habits.*  The  classroom  teacher  should  arrange  these  in  a 
definite  order,  so  that  he  will  know  what  to  concentrate 

»The  Illinois  "Course  of  Study"  and  the  Montana  "Course  of 
Study  "  are  especially  helpful  in  this  respect. 


236  CLASSROOM    MANAGEMENT 

upon  each  week.  He  should,  of  course,  supplement  the  list 
from  errors  that  he  observes  in  the  course  of  class  work. 
Again  it  is  not  sufficient  that  the  pupil  know  the  error  and 
the  proper  form ;  too  many  teachers  believe  that  efficiency 
in  these  matters  can  be  adequately  tested  by  a  formal  ex- 
amination in  language.  The  test,  of  course,  is  the  habitual 
use  of  the  proper  form ;  that  is,  its  use  on  occasions  when 
one  does  not  explicitly  think  about  it.  The  only  test  here 
is  a  diminishing  number  of  corrections  in  the  daily  expres- 
sion of  the  pupils.  "I  knew,  but  I  didn't  think"  is  one 
of  the  many  inadequate  but  commonly  accepted  excuses 
which  make  scamped  work  the  rule  instead  of  the  excep- 
tion in  our  schools.  It  simply  means  that  correct  expres- 
sion has  not  been  reduced  to  the  plane  of  automatism,  and 
this  means  that  the  work  of  habit-building  has  not  been 
effective. 

12.  {d)  Testing  Habit-building  in  Arithmetic,  (i)  Ac- 
curacy. In  making  number  facts  automatic,  it  is  neces- 
sary rigidly  to  test  the  results  at  very  frequent  intervals 
if  wasteful  processes  are  to  be  eliminated.  Several 
methods  of  testing  are  available.  The  best  criterion  is 
probably  the  number  of  mistakes  in  the  written  problems 
of  the  pupils.  In  applying  this  test,  it  is  necessary  to 
preserve  the  arithmetic  papers  and  to  note  the  frequency 
with  which  the  same  combination  is  erroneously  stated  in 
the  papers  of  each  pupil.  The  total  number  of  mechanical 
errors  made  by  the  entire  class  should  also  show  a  uniform 
decrease  as  the  work  progresses.  It  is  probable  that  the 
number  of  mechanical  errors  will  sHghtly  increase  immedi- 


TESTING    RESULTS  237 

ately  after  the  introduction  of  new  principles,  for  the  same 
reason  that  the  form  receives  a  setback  at  such  times; 
but  these  temporary  increases  should  become  less  and  less 
noticeable  as  the  child  matures. 

Another  method  can  be  appUed  by  noting  "^he  proportion 
of  pupils  who  make  no  errors  in  a  single  exercise.  This 
number  should  show  a  gradual  and  imiform  increase.  In 
the  oral  work  (the  rapid  "mental"  solution  of  both  abstract 
and  concrete  problems)  the  number  of  pupils  giving  in- 
correct answers  should  become  smaller  and  smaller;  it 
is  a  good  plan  to  keep  brief  records  with  regard  to  these 
points. 

13.  (2)  Rapidity,  Efficient  number  habits  must  in- 
volve rapidity  of  combination  as  well  as  accuracy,  although 
the  latter  factor  is,  obviously,  of  greater  importance.  After 
the  combinations  in  any  series  (multiplication  table  of 
threes,  for  example)  have  been  mastered  accurately, — 
when  7  times  3  are  21  in  the  reaction  of  every  pupil  with- 
out any  doubt,  or  any  temptation  on  the  pupil's  part  to 
say  22  or  24  or  any  other  number  save  21,  —  drill  should 
be  initiated  for  increasing  the  rapidity  of  the  reaction.  One 
very  good  device  for  this  purpose  is  to  have  the  table  placed 
upon  the  blackboard  by  each  pupil  in  the  regular  order :  — 

1X3  =  3 
2X3  =  6 

3  X3  =  9 

4  X  3  =  12,  etc. 

With  watch  in  hand,  the  teacher  "times"  the  pupils  in 
this  exercise,  encouraging  competition  in  rapidity,  but 


238  CLASSROOM    MANAGEMENT 

counteracting  the  inevitable  tendencies  toward  inaccurate 
results  and  the  careless  writing  of  figures.  After  writing 
the  table  in  the  regular  series,  the  pupils  may  be  directed 
to  erase  the  third  column  (the  "answers")  and  to  rewrite, 
beginning  at  the  bottom.  Again  the  teacher  "times"  the 
exercise.  The  pupils  may  then  be  directed  to  erase  the 
figures  in  the  first  and  third  columns  (the  multipliers  and 
the  answers),  the  teacher  later  dictating  multipUers  in  an 
irregular  order,  and  requiring  the  third  column  to  be  filled 
from  the  top  downward.  This  will  check  the  tendency 
of  the  pupil  always  to  refer  back  to  the  regular  series 
in  order  to  get  any  desired  combination.  In  testing  the 
efficiency  of  this  drill,  the  records  of  the  time  consumed 
in  each  exercise  should  be  preserved.  The  time  should, 
of  course,  diminish  with  practice,  otherwise  the  drill  is 
ineffective. 

14.  (e)  Spelling,  The  general  inadequacy  of  the 
methods  of  teaching  spelling  as  commonly  applied  in 
the  schools  has  been  adequately  demonstrated  by  Corn- 
man  ^  in  a  very  notable  series  of  experiments.  Dr. 
Comman  came  to  the  conclusion  that  the  "amount 
of  time  devoted  to  the  specific  spelling  drill  bears  no 
discoverable  relation  to  the  result,  the  latter  remaining 
practically  constant  after  the  elimination  of  the  spelling 
drill  from  the  school  program."  This  simply  means 
that,  in  Dr.  Commands  tests,  it  was  foimd  that  formal 

*  O.  p.  Comman:  "Spelling  in  the  Elementary  School,"  in  Experi- 
mental Studies  in  Psychology  and  Pedagogy  (University  of  Pennsylvania), 
1902,  vol.  i.      Cf.  Thorndike:  Principles  of  Teaching,  pp.  268-273. 


TESTING    RESULTS  239 

and  separate  exercises  in  spelling  had  no  appreciable 
result.  The  investigator  in  question  argues  from  this 
fact  that  spelUng  drills  should  be  eliminated  and  that  the 
mastery  of  spelling  should  be  accomplished  in  connec- 
tion with  the  other  school  exercises.  It  should  be  stated, 
however,  that  he  does  not  indorse  the  "incidental"  teach- 
ing of  spelling  in  the  usual  sense  of  the  term.  That  is, 
he^  would  require  the  pupils  to  focalize  the  form  of  words, 
and  he  would  provide  exphcitly  for  such  focaUzation,  but 
he  would  not  devote  a  specific  school  exercise  to  this  task. 
One  may  venture  the  opinion,  however,  that  the  meager 
results  of  the  spelUng  exercises  are  due,  not  to  the  fact  that 
spelling  is  given  a  specific  place  in  the  school  program  as 
Dr.  Comman  imphes,  but  to  inadequate  methods  of  teach- 
ing spelling  during  that  exercise.  As  a  matter  of  fact,  in 
no  school  exercise  is  the  inadequate  comprehension  on  the 
part  of  teachers  of  the  simple  principles  of  educational 
psychology  more  clearly  to  be  seen.  The  average  spell- 
ing lesson  is  ineffective  because  the  average  teacher  fails 
to  understand  the  impHcations  of  the  law  of  habit-build- 
ing. Words  to  be  spelled  effectively  must  be  spelled 
automatically,  —  that  is,  without  "thinking"  of  the  form 
of  the  word.  To  gain  this  end,  however,  the  form  must 
first  be  focahzed  and  then  the  appropriate  adjustments 
must  be  repeated  attentively  until  automatism  results. 
The  average  spelHng  lesson  involves  a  certain  amount  of 
concentration  upon  the  form,  it  also  involves  one  or  two 
repetitions.  At  this  point,  ordinarily,  the  whole  matter 
ends.    Very  naturally  the  next  time  that  the  pupil  meets 


240  CXASSROOM    MANAGEMENT 

the  word  in  the  course  of  written  composition,  where  he 
is  concentrating  upon  the  content  rather  than  the  form,  he 
misspells  the  word. 

15.  The  remedy  for  this  condition  lies  in  an  adequate 
apphcation  of  the  law  of  habit-building.  The  initial 
focaHzation  must  be  undertaken  more  carefully  and  the 
repetitions  must  be  more  numerous  and  must  involve  more 
explicit  attention.  It  is  insuflScient  to  have  misspelled 
words  rewritten  five  or  ten  or  even  one  hundred  times, 
unless  one  can  assure  one's  self  that  the  repetition  thus 
involved  is  conscious  and  focal.  Words  that  are  mis- 
spelled should  be  drilled  upon,  day  after  day,  week  after 
week,  if  necessary,  until  perfect  automatism  results.  What 
is  the  test  of  effective  teaching  of  spelHng  ?  Nothing  more 
nor  less  than  the  infrequency  with  which  misspelled  words 
appear  in  composition  work  or  other  exercises  where  the 
pupil  concentrates  upon  content.  If  improvement  is  shown 
in  this  respect,  the  teaching  of  spelling  is  obviously  effec- 
tive. If  improvement  is  not  shovm,  the  teaching  is  in- 
effective. The  composition  papers  should  be  kept  and 
carefully  studied  with  this  end  in  view.  The  number  of 
misspelled  words  in  each  one  hundred  should  be  carefully 
computed,  and  these  computations  should  form  the  basis 
for  judging  the  efl5ciency  of  the  formal  spelling  lessons. 
Needless  to  say,  these  formal  lessons  should  include  the 
words  that  the  pupils  use  in  their  expressive  work,  and 
especially  the  words  that  are  difficult  should  be  repeated 
from  day  to  day  in  the  spelhng  lesson,  until  absolutely 
no  mistakes  occur  in  the  written  work. 


TESTING    RESULTS 


241 


As  an  example  of  this  method  of  measuring  the  results  of  in- 
struction in  spelling,  the  following  test  may  be  instanced.  Prior 
to  November  19,  1906,  a  ten-minute  period  was  devoted  to 
formal  spelling  in  the  Training  Department  of  the  Oswego 
Normal  School.  Since  that  time,  the  length  of  the  speUing 
period  has  been  doubled,  and  a  specific  time  has  been  desig- 
nated for  the  assignment  of  the  spelling  lesson,  applying  the 
method  of  assignment  indicated  in  Chapter  XIII.  The  papers 
that  the  pupils  produced  in  their  "  story  "  work  in  the  lower 
grades  and  in  history  in  the  upper  grades  were  used  as  a  basis 
of  the  test.  The  per  cent  of  correctly  spelled  words  in  the 
papers  of  November  19th  was  computed  and  compared  with 
the  per  cent  of  correctly  spelled  words  in  the  papers  of  January 
4th,  1907.     The  following  table  shows  the  gain  made  in  each 


Grade 

Correctly  spelled, 
Nov.  19 

Correctly  spelled, 
Jan.  4 

Gain 

IV  "B" 

87 

per  cent 

98 

per  cent 

II 

per  cent 

IV  "A" 

93 

per  cent 

98 

per  cent 

5 

per  cent 

V"B" 

79 

per  cent 

95 

per  cent 

16 

per  cent 

V"B" 

80 

per  cent 

96 

per  cent 

16 

per  cent 

V  "A" 

96 

per  cent 

98 

per  cent 

2 

per  cent 

V  "A" 

95 

per  cent 

98 

per  cent 

3 

per  cent 

VI  "B  " 

95 

per  cent 

97 

per  cent 

2 

per  cent 

VI  "B" 

98 

per  cent 

99 

per  cent 

I 

per  cent 

VI  "A" 

94 

per  cent 

98 

per  cent 

4 

per  cent 

VII  "B" 

96 

per  cent 

97 

per  cent 

I 

per  cent 

VII  "B" 

96 

per  cent 

99 

per  cent 

3 

per  cent 

VII  "A" 

98. 

I  per  cent 

98.3  per  cent 

0.2  per  cent 

VIII  "B" 

95 

per  cent 

98 

per  cent 

3 

per  cent 

VIII  "A" 

96 

per  cent 

98 

per  cent 

2 

per  cent 

of  the  several  rooms  in  the  school,  and  forms  a  fair  index  of 
the  efficiency  of  the  instruction  in  spelling.    It  should  be  noted 


242  CLASSROOM    MANAGEMENT 

that  the  words  forming  the  material  for  the  spelling  lessons 
were  selected  from  the  daily  work  of  the  pupils.^ 

1 6.  Testing  Knowledge.  The  efl&ciency  of  habit-build- 
ing is  to  be  measured  by  the  pupiPs  ability  to  react  ap- 
propriately in  an  automatic  way  —  without  "thinking" 
of  the  various  elements  involved  in  the  reaction.  The 
efficiency  of  instruction  that  seeks  to  impart  facts  and 
principles  is  tested  by  the  abihty  of  the  pupil  to  apply  these 
facts  and  principles  to  the  problems  of  Ufe  in  the  formation 
of  judgments.^  Habit-building  can  be  more  easily  tested 
in  the  school  than  the  imparting  of  knowledge,  because  the 
school  provides  innumerable  situations  in  which  habits 
must  function  effectively,  while  it  fails  to  provide  many 
situations  in  which  the  knowledge  gained  is  to  be  applied 
in  judgment  form.  For  example,  the  pupil  writes  and 
spells  in  the  course  of  his  everyday  school  work;  his 
number  habits  function  throughout  the  later  work  in 
arithmetic;  he  speaks,  sits,  stands,  walks,  and  has  social 
relations  with  other  members  of  the  school  group.  Any 
deficiency  in  habit-building  is  revealed  clearly  and  tme- 
quivocally.  But  the  child  does  not  apply  his  knowledge 
in  the  same  unequivocal  fashion.     In  theory,  it  is  true,  he 

*  These  results  should  not  be  interpreted  as  meaning  that  the  length- 
ening of  the  period  was  entirely  responsible  for  the  improvement.  No 
attempt  was  made  to  make  the  test  an  experiment  to  prove  this  thesis. 
Other  factors  entered,  not  the  least  important  of  which  was  a  general 
insistence  on  "better  spelling"  in  all  work.  It  should  be  added,  how- 
ever, that  words  were  not  spelled  for  pupils  during  the  composition 
periods. 

*  Cf.  the  distinction  between  habit  and  Judgment  in  The  Educative 
Process,  chs.  vii,  viii. 


TESTING    RESULTS  243 

may  be  expected  to  use  his  geographical  facts  in  inter- 
preting history,  his  arithmetical  principles  in  the  con- 
structive activities  of  manual  training,  his  physiological 
principles  in  making  better  the  hygienic  conditions  of  his 
daily  life.  But  every  teacher  knows  that  this  expectation 
is  seldom  realized  in  practice,  and  then  only  in  a  very  small 
degree. 

17.  This  lack  of  some  real  criterion  for  measuring  the 
efficiency  of  instruction  has  led  to  the  employment  of  a 
formal  and  rather  artificial  criterion,  —  the  examination. 
The  relative  inefficiency  of  this  method  is  a  by-word  among 
teachers,  and  there  are  not  a  few  educators  who  would 
discard  it  entirely,  evidently  preferring  no  standard  at  all 
to  an  inadequate  and  often  deceptive  standard. 

The  examination,  however,  seems  to  possess  certain 
virtues  as  an  educative  process  that  counteract  in  some 
measure  its  deficiencies  as  a  test  either  of  knowledge  or 
of  the  efficiency  of  instruction,  (i)  It  gives  the  facts  and 
principles  to  be  mastered  a  certain  importance  in  the  eyes 
of  the  pupils  that  might  otherwise  be  lacking.  (2)  It  fur- 
nishes a  motive  for  the  compact  organization  and  close 
correlation  of  facts  and  principles;  it  is  a  unifying  and 
integrating  agency  without  the  operation  of  which  in- 
struction is  prone  to  "  scatter,"  and  knowledge  to  be  diffuse 
and  incoherent.* 

18.  The  problem  would  therefore  seem  to  involve  the 

*  Cf .  The  Educative  Process,  ch.  xxii ;  a  similar  position  is  also  taken  by 
L.  Dugas:  "Psychologic  des  Examens,"  in  Revue  Philosophique,  1904, 
vol.  Iviii,  pp.  379-399. 


244  CLASSROOM    MANAGEMENT 

improvement  rather  than  the  elimination  of  the  exami- 
nation. In  one  way  or  another,  the  examination  must  be 
made  to  test,  not  the  memory  for  specific  and  unrelated 
facts,  but  the  capacity  of  the  individual  first  to  organize, 
and  secondly  to  apply,  the  facts  and  principles  that  con- 
stitute the  subject-matter  of  instruction. 

It  is  in  respect  of  the  latter  point  that  the  greater  diffi- 
culty will  be  met.  A  fact  or  a  principle  is  obviously  valu- 
able only  in  so  far  as  it  may  either  be  applied  to  the  problems 
of  life  or  form  the  key  to  other  facts  and  principles  that 
may  be  so  applied.  Knowledge  which  fulfills  neither  one 
of  these  functions  is  just  so  much  useless  furniture  which 
mind  will  discard  at  the  earliest  possible  opportunity. 
The  great  trouble  with  the  average  examination  is  that  it 
does  not  test  these  two  capacities.  Consequently  it  is  not 
the  check  that  it  should  be  upon  the  efficiency  of  instruc- 
tion; for,  if  knowledge  is  to  be  used,  it  must  be  imparted 
in  such  a  way  that  it  can  be  used.  The  examination,  as 
usually  conducted,  tests  the  memory  for  discrete  facts: 
consequently  the  instruction  aims  at  fixing  such  facts. 
If  the  examination  could  be  remodeled,  instruction  would 
necessarily  be  modified  to  meet  the  new  demands.^ 

^  The  influence  of  examinations  on  methods  of  instruction  is  clearly 
to  be  seen  in  school  systems  that  are  dominated  by  formal  examinations 
sent  out  from  a  central  office.  The  questions  are  preserved  from  year 
to  year,  and  pupils  are  drilled  upon  these  questions  to  the  practical  ex- 
clusion of  other  methods  of  instruction.  This  is  not  education  in  any 
sense  of  the  term,  and  the  practice  has,  through  its  abuse  of  the  examina- 
tion, brought  the  latter  into  a  disrepute  that  is  not  justified.  In  this 
connection,  cf .  H.  Latham :  Examinations  considered  as  a  Means  of  Selec- 
tion, Boston,  1886,  chs.  ii,  vi,  ix. 


TESTING    RESULTS  245 

The  general  inadequacy  of  the  average  examination  as  an 
index  of  the  ability  of  the  pupil  is  well  evidenced  by  the  writer's 
experience  in  the  training  of  teachers.  He  has  found  that 
proficiency  in  academic  work  as  measured  by  the  examination 
test  is  in  no  sense  correlated  with  the  ability  of  the  students 
to  do  efifective  teaching  in  the  practice  school.  Very  frequently 
the  students  who  have  the  lowest  records  in  the  academic  depart- 
ment make  excellent  records  in  practice,  and,  even  more  fre- 
quently, the  students  who  are  sent  from  the  academic  courses 
with  the  highest  grades,  make  most  disastrous  failures  in 
actual  teaching. 

Similar  testimony  is  offered  by  university  experience,  as 
witness  the  following :  "In  university  faculties  the  observation 
has  been  very  often  made  that  graduates  who  come  from 
colleges  with  the  highest  standards  of  attainments  as  tested  by 
examinations,  are  less  disposed  to  attempt  original  work  and 
are  less  successful  when  they  do  so.  They  have  been  trained 
in  receptive  processes,  and  it  is  a  serious  question  whether 
examinations  do  not  tend  directly  to  prevent  knowledge  from 
striking  deep  root,  and  to  delay  it  in  the  'memory  vestibule.' 
If  this  be  true,  they  are  a  distinct  hindrance  to  the  assimilation 
of  mental  pabulum."  ^ 

19.  How  should  examination  questions  be  set  in  order 
to  fulfill  the  conditions  essential  to  making  the  examination 
a  test  of  ability  to  organize  and  apply  rather  than  a  test 
of  ability  to  remember  isolated  facts?  In  the  first  place, 
the  teacher  must  bear  in  mind  the  fundamental  principle 
of  effective  testing,  which  has  been  very  clearly  formulated 
by  Professor  Thomdike :  ^  "To  know  whether  any  one  has 
a  given  mental  state,  see  if  he  can  use  it ;  to  know  whether 

*  G.  S.  Hall :  Confessions  of  a  Psychologist,  Worcester,  p.  52. 
'  E.  L.  Thomdike :  Principles  of  Teaching,  p.  260. 


246  CLASSROOM    MANAGEMENT 

any  one  will  make  a  given  response  to  a  certain  situation, 
put  him  in  the  situation  arranged  so  that  that  response, 
and  that  response  alone,  will  produce  a  certain  result, 
and  see  if  that  result  is  produced." 

The  only  practicable  method  of  applying  this  principle 
to  the  formal  examination  is  to  construct  ideal  situations 
and  ask  the  pupil  to  apply  his  knowledge  to  their  solution. 
Thus  the  examination  questions  in  arithmetic  will  be  made 
up  largely  of  concrete  problems,  taken  from  real  life  — 
problems  that  the  men  and  women  in  the  world  are  facing 
every  day.  The  same  class  of  questions  should  be  given 
in  other  subjects. 

Questions  of  this  type  are  to  be  found  in  the  problems  of 
the  better  and  more  recent  text-books.  Especially  to  be  com- 
mended in  this  respect  are  che  Meyer  and  Brooks  arithmetics, 
the  Smith  arithmetics,  and  others  of  similar  scope.  The  Tarr 
and  McMurry  and  the  Dodge  geographies  will  also  furnish 
valuable  suggestions.  Best  of  all,  perhaps,  from  the  stand- 
point of  the  pedagogy  of  test  questions  are  some  of  the  recent 
books  in  educational  theory;  especially  O'Shea's  Dynamic 
Factors  in  Education,  De  Garmo's  Principles  of  Secondary 
Education,  and  Thorndike's  Principles  of  Teaching,  in  each  of 
which  the  various  chapters  or  sections  conclude  with  practical 
topics  and  questions,  suggesting  actual  situations  which  are  to 
be  solved  by  an  application  of  the  principles  brought  forth. 

20.  It  must  not  be  forgotten,  however,  that  the  ability 
to  organize  knowledge  into  coherent  systems  should  form 
an  important  factor  to  be  tested  by  the  examination.  In 
the  writer's  experience  it  has  been  found  best  to  direct 
either  one  in  every  three,  or  one  in  every  two,  of  the  ques- 


TESTING    RESULTS  247 

tions  asked  in  an  examination  toward  this  end.  Such 
questions  should  be  broad  and  general  in  their  formula- 
tion, thus  both  testing  and  encouraging  the  capacity  for 
organization.  The  remaining  questions  should  be  specific 
and  pointed,  having  particular  reference  to  the  solution  of 
practical,  concrete  situations. 

The  following  questions  on  the  geography  of  South  America 
may  serve  to  illustrate  the  principle :  — 

(i)  Discuss  the  location  and  extent  of  South  America. 
(This  is  a  general  question,  and,  to  be  answered  adequately, 
requires  the  ability  to  hold  a  number  of  facts  in  mind  and  to 
determine  the  relations  between  them.  Thus  the  question 
might  be  made  more  specific  by  asking  that  South  America  be 
located  with  respect  to  other  continents,  and  by  requiring  defi- 
nite comparisons  of  South  America  with  other  continents  in 
respect  of  extent.  The  instruction,  however,  should  have 
made  clear  that  a  topic  like  this  involves  these  various  points.) 

(2)  Would  London  or  New  York  be  in  a  more  favorable 
position  for  commerce  with  Buenos  Ayres?  Give  reasons. 
(This  is  a  specific  question,  demanding  the  practical  applica- 
tion of  the  general  principles  brought  out  in  the  first  question 
and  having  direct  reference  to  a  matter  of  practical  business 
significance.) 

21.  It  is  clear  that  examination  questions  of  this  type 
will  demand  a  rather  marked  modification  of  methods  of 
teaching;  and  this,  after  all,  is  the  important  point.  // 
knowledge  is  to  become  applicable  to  the  needs  of  lije,  it 
must  be  presented  in  a  manner  that  will  bring  out  its  prac- 
tical or  social  values.  Examination  questions  can  then  be 
framed  that  will  test  the  pupil's  ability  to  apply  the  knowl- 


248  CLASSROOM    MANAGEMENT 

edge  gained.  If  such  questions  are  answered  inadequately, 
it  simply  shows  that  instruction  has  been  inadequate ;  con- 
sequently the  formal  examination  can  be  made  a  test  of 
the  efficiency  of  instruction  as  well  as  a  method  for  en- 
couraging organizing  activity  on  the  part  of  the  pupils.^ 

22.  Marking  Examination  Papers.  Except  in  mathe- 
matics or  some  similar  branch  of  exact  science,  it  is  im- 
possible to  apply  an  exact  scale  of  marking.  For  example, 
if  in  a  geography  test  there  are  the  questions  similar  to 
those  given  above,  one  cannot  value  a  pupiPs  answers 
on  the  basis  of  a  finely  graduated  series  of  marks  —  run- 
ning, say,  from  i  to  100 ;  but  one  can  safely  say  whether 
the  pupil's  answer  is  excellent,  good,  fair,  poor,  or  abso- 
lutely bad.  If  different  teachers  mark  the  same  papers 
on  the  scale  of  100,  a  certain  variation  will  be  found  in  the 
grades  given  by  each.  In  fact,  if  the  same  teacher  marks 
the  same  paper  at  different  times,  a  certain  amount  of 
variation  is  almost  always  to  be  noted.  On  the  other 
hand,  within  wider  limits,  the  variation  is  slight ;  that  is, 
an  excellent  paper  will  usually  be  so  adjudged  by  different 
teachers  and  by  the  same  teacher  at  different  times;  and 
a  poor  paper  would  be  very  infrequently  marked  excellent, 

*  It  is  well  to  have  access  to  typical  examination  questions  set  in 
dififerent  subjects,  together  with  the  average  standings  obtained  by  various 
classes  taking  these  examinations.  In  this  way  the  teacher  can  "check" 
the  efficiency  of  his  own  teaching  by  comparing  his  results  with  others. 
Rice's  articles,  referred  to  at  the  close  of  this  chapter,  furnish  sets  of 
"standard"  questions  in  arithmetic  for  Grades  IV- VIII  inclusive,  and 
also  give  the  results  of  a  large  number  of  classes  taking  these  examina- 
tions. The  "  Springfield  "  questions  are  also  available  for  comparative 
tests.     (See  Appendix  C.) 


TESTING    RESULTS  249 

or  good,  or  fair,  under  any  conditions.  Consequently, 
although  finely  graduated  markings  are  not  to  be  trusted, 
the  possibility  of  a  reasonably  accurate  marking  must  be 
admitted. 

23.  To  summarize:  the  efficiency  of  instruction  may 
be  tested  by  a  careful  application  of  the  method  of  formal 
examinations.  This  test  will  not  be  so  accurate  as  are 
the  various  tests  to  which  habit-building  may  be  subjected, 
but  it  is  far  better  than  no  test  at  all,  and  it  may  be  made 
more  and  more  effective  by  gradually  improving  the  tech- 
nique of  examination  questions,  and  by  adopting  a  scale 
of  grading  more  elastic  than  the  numerical  system  affords. 

References.  — Thomdike:  Principles  of  Teaching,  ch.  xvi;  Dut- 
ton:  School  Management,  ch.  xiv;  Seeley:  A  New  School  Manage- 
ment, ch.  XV ;  J.  M.  Rice:  articles  in  Forum  as  follows:  vol.  xxxiv 
(1902),  pp.  117-130;  181-297;  437-452;  588-607. 


CHAPTER  XVI 
The  Disposition  of  the  Teacher's  Time 

1.  The  efficiency  of  the  teacher  is  influenced  by  a  variety 
of  factors,  but  the  chief  of  these  is  his  ability  to  give  a 
maximum  of  attention  to  the  problems  involved  in  instruc- 
tion. If  his  life  is  not  so  ordered  that  he  can  meet  each 
class  with  a  maximum  of  energy  at  his  disposal,  the  value 
of  his  work  to  the  community  must  be  seriously  impaired. 
It  is  germane  to  our  problem,  therefore,  to  inquire  into  the 
disposition  of  the  teacher's  time,  not  only  in  school,  but 
also  out  of  school. 

2.  The  prime  school  duties  of  the  teacher  may  be  classed 
as  instructional  and  disciplinary.  Both  are  important  in 
and  for  themselves,  and  neither  should  be  neglected  for 
the  other.  The  accessory  school  duties  may  be  classed  as 
clerical  and  administrative.  These  are  not  to  be  neglected, 
but  should  never  be  permitted  to  interfere  with  instruction 
and  discipline. 

In  every  well-regulated  life  there  must  be  a  time  that  is 
specifically  allotted  to  all  routine  tasks.  The  teacher's  hours 
of  actual  service  are  comparatively  short  —  at  most  thirty 
hours  each  week  for  a  maximum  of  forty  weeks,  or  twelve 
hundred  hours  annually.  In  view  of  this  fact,  it  is  not  too 
much  to  expect  that  the  teacher  dispose  of  the  necessary 
clerical  work  outside  of  the  regular  school  hours.     By  far  the 

250 


THE   DISPOSITION  OF  THE  TEACHER'S  TIME         251 

best  plan  is  to  set  aside  the  hour  immediately  following  the 
close  of  the  daily  session  for  such  work,  and  to  keep  reports 
and  records  "up  to  date."  The  tendency  to  postpone  clerical 
work  until  reports  are  called  for  is  pernicious  and  should  be 
strenuously  combated  from  the  outset. 

3.  The  out-oj-school  duties  of  the  teacher  may  be  con- 
veniently designated  as  (a)  professional,  (b)  hygienic, 
(c)  civic,  and  {d)  social  and  personal. 

(fl)  Professional  Duties.  These  include  (i)  preparation 
of  school  work,  and  (2)  study,  reading,  and  discussion 
along  broader  educational  lines.  To  the  true  craftsman 
the  dominating  interest  in  life  is  the  doing  of  each  day's 
work  in  the  best  possible  manner.  To  him  no  other  reward 
can  ever  equal  the  consciousness  of  work  well  done.  It 
takes  some  time,  however,  for  the  young  teacher  to  assume 
this  attitude.  His  first  experiences  will  fascinate  him 
because  of  their  novelty,  but  when  this  novelty  wears 
away,  —  as  it  must  sooner  or  later,  —  there  will  almost 
invariably  ensue  a  period  of  time,  more  or  less  protracted, 
during  which  he  must  hold  himself  strenuously  to  his 
tasks,  and  resist  with  all  his  power  the  inevitable  distaste 
for  continued  effort.  This  is  the  most  critical  period  in 
the  life  of  any  worker,  and  it  is  during  this  time  that  every 
teacher  stands  in  direst  need  of  all  the  encouragement 
and  inspiration  that  he  can  command. 

One  of  the  surest  means  of  attaining  the  mental  attitude 
that  finds  the  daily  tasks  fascinating  in  themselves  is  to 
set  out  resolutely  with  the  intention  of  making  the  day's 
work  the  most  important  phase  of  life.    The  most  effective 


252  CLASSROOM    MANAGEMENT 

way  to  fortify  this  resolution  is  to  give  from  the  very  begin- 
ning a  stated  period  of  time  outside  of  the  regular  school 
work  to  preparation  for,  and  reflection  upon,  the  details 
of  that  work.  From  two  to  three  hours  in  the  evening  will 
be  none  too  long  for  this  purpose.  Every  lesson  that  is 
to  be  taught  should  be  worked  over  beforehand.  The  best 
manner  of  approaching  the  lesson  should  be  determined, 
and  questions  framed  that  will  prepare  the  class  for  the  new 
material.  Illustrations  should  be  sought  from  all  possible 
sources,  worked  over,  and  adapted  to  the  age  and  mental 
attainments  of  the  pupils.  At  the  beginning,  the  teacher 
would  do  well  to  write  out  carefully  the  plan  of  each  lesson, 
including  the  specific  questions  and  explanations,  and  to 
rehearse  the  whole  before  an  imaginary  class.  This  is  a 
strenuous  program,  but  it  will  return  large  dividends  upon 
the  time  and  energy  invested.  In  addition  to  work  of  this 
nature,  one  should  reflect  carefully  upon  the  order  in  which 
pupils  are  to  be  called  upon  for  recitation,  and  adapt 
questions  and  topics  to  the  peculiarities  of  individual  chil- 
dren. Finally,  the  independent  work  of  the  pupils  during 
the  study  periods  should  be  planned  and  the  necessary 
materials  provided. 

4.  An  important  task  of  the  teacher  in  connection  with 
out-of-school  work  is  the  supervision  of  written  exercises. 
This  should  not  be  classed  with  the  clerical  duties  men- 
tioned above,  for  it  is  too  important  to  be  left  for  the 
clerical  hour  after  school  when  the  teacher's  energies  are 
necessarily  at  a  low  ebb.  The  wise  course  is  not  to  de- 
mand written  work  from  pupils  in  so  large  an  amount  that 


THE   DISPOSITION  OF   THE   TEACHER'S    TIME         253 

it  cannot  be  carefully  supervised  in  the  evening  without 
intruding  upon  the  time  that  the  teacher  must  devote  to 
the  preparation  of  lessons.  In  many  cases,  teachers  give 
too  much  time  and  energy  to  the  correction  of  examination 
papers,  problems,  essays,  and  note-books,  and  too  httle 
attention  to  preparation  for  teaching.  The  very  fact  that 
so  much  written  work  is  demanded  often  renders  the  labor 
of  the  teacher  in  correcting  papers  quite  without  effect. 
Pupils  continue  to  make  the  same  mistakes  because  the 
large  number  of  mistakes  precludes  effective  concentration 
upon  any  one,  and  because,  in  the  chaos  of  interlineations 
and  marginal  comments,  it  is  impossible  for  the  pupil  to 
attack  the  mistakes  in  the  systematic  manner  that  alone  will 
bring  results.  If  the  written  work  in  most  of  our  schools 
could  be  reduced  to  about  one  third  of  its  present  pro- 
portions, the  efficiency  of  instruction  would  be  greatly 
increased. 

5.  (2)  Broader  Pro jessional  Culture.  The  young  teacher 
can  fortify  the  craft  spirit  by  forming  regular  habits  of 
study  both  along  general  educational  lines  and  in  gaining 
a  more  thorough  grasp  upon  specific  subject-matter  of 
instruction.  He  should  read  regularly  three  or  four  edu- 
cational journals.  One  of  these  should  be  his  state  or 
local  journal,  another  a  national  school  newspaper.  These 
will  give  him  the  ** gossip'*  of  his  craft  —  the  personal 
items  concerning  the  men  and  women  who  are  his  col- 
leagues in  school  work.  He  will  become  familiar  with  the 
"big  names"  of  contemporary  education,  and  will  know 
what  the  great  movements  are  and  the  people  who  stand 


254  CLASSROOM    MANAGEMENT 

for  them.  Another  journal  should  be  devoted  to  the  par- 
ticular problems  of  the  special  field  with  which  the  teacher 
is  most  intimately  concerned,  —  primary  work,  upper 
grade  work,  high  school  work,  as  the  case  may  be.  A 
fourth  should  be  one  of  the  more  general  reviews,  cover- 
ing the  entire  field  of  education  and  discussing  school 
problems  in  their  very  broadest  relations.  Not  everything 
in  all  of  these  journals  should  be  read  by  every  teacher,  but 
it  is  well  to  have  access  to  at  least  one  journal  in  each 
of  the  four  classes,  and  to  examine  every  number  care- 
fully to  discover  what  it  contains  that  may  be  of  value. 

In  this  day  of  periodical  literature,  one  very  easily  contracts 
a  vicious  habit  of  desultory  reading.  In  fact,  this  habit  bids 
fair  to  become  one  of  the  most  pernicious  intellectual  diseases 
of  modern  times.  So  great  a  variety  of  reading  matter  is  pro- 
vided at  so  small  a  cost  that  one  is  tempted  away  from  that 
protracted  and  sustained  reading  from  which  alone  one  can 
make  measurable  gains  in  culture  and  attainment.  Discon- 
nected items  of  information  are  not  educative,  except  in 
homoeopathic  doses.  The  cheap  magazines  and  weekly 
newspapers  that  cater  to  the  popular  demand  for  change 
and  variety  are  undoubtedly  doing  much  toward  weakening 
the  intellectual  fiber  of  the  race.  One  does  not  realize  how 
pernicious  is  their  influence  until  one  sits  down  to  a  serious  piece 
of  work  in  an  environment  that  is  filled  with  these  distracting 
influences.  The  best  plan  for  the  young  teacher  is  to  keep  out 
of  temptation's  way,  otherwise  he  is  apt  to  find  that  all  of  his 
well-laid  plans  for  evening  study  and  self-improvement  come 
to  naught.  Certainly,  as  a  matter  of  habit,  he  should  read  at 
least  two  serious  articles  in  a  general  educational  review  each 
month.    This  is  an  example  of  what  Professor  James  terms 


THE   DISPOSITION  OF   THE   TEACHER'S   TIME         255 

"giving  the  will  a  little  gratuitous  exercise."  The  articles  may 
not  be  particularly  interesting  or  particularly  germane  to  his 
work,  but  the  fact  that  they  appear  in  a  high-class  review  indi- 
cates that  they  are  important,  and  a  great  many  articles  that 
seem  dull  and  heavy  at  the  outset  will  be  found  interesting 
before  they  are  finished. 

6.  Every  teacher  should  read  each  year  one  or  two  of 
the  season's  new  books  on  general  education.  Some  of 
these  are  not  to  be  taken  too  seriously,  but  many  of  them 
will  give  fresh  points  of  view  and  offer  valuable  suggestions. 
Educational  theory  is  just  now  in  a  transition  stage  of  its 
development,  and  no  one  can  tell  at  what  moment  some 
epoch-making  principle  may  be  enunciated.  It  behooves 
the  progressive  teacher  to  keep  in  touch  with  the  firing 
line,  even  though  he  reserves  his  own  judgment  as  to  the 
practical  significance  of  each  little  victory. 

7.  Teachers*  Associations.  It  is  unnecessary  to  point 
out  the  stimulus  which  the  annual  state  and  national 
gatherings  of  teachers  give  to  the  craft  spirit.  The  young 
teacher  should  avail  himself  from  the  outset  of  this  medium 
of  inspiration.  Again,  what  is  presented  in  the  formal 
papers  is  not  always  to  be  taken-  too  seriously,  but  the  give- 
and-take  discussion  of  mooted  questions,  the  animated 
"shop  talk"  of  the  hotel  lobbies  and  parlors,  the  oppor- 
tunities to  exchange  experiences  with  others  who  are 
facing  similar  problems  —  these  factors  often  give  the 
meetings  an  untold  value. 

In  this  connection,  also,  must  again  be  mentioned  the 
visiting  of  schools.    The  teacher  who  limits  his  profes- 


2$6  CLASSROOM    MANAGEMENT 

sional  life  to  the  narrow  confines  of  his  own  classroom  is 
almost  certain  to  have  low  standards  of  instruction  and 
discipline.  To  have  in  mind  a  vivid  image  of  conditions 
in  a  first-class  school  is  to  have  an  ideal  toward  which  one's 
own  energies  may  be  directed.  Not  a  few  teachers  con- 
scientiously believe  that  their  pupils  are  doing  just  as 
good  work  as  can  be  got  from  them ;  a  visit  to  another 
school  of  the  same  grade  is  apt  to  open  their  eyes  —  unless, 
indeed,  they  be  hopelessly  blinded. 

8.  (b)  Hygienic  Duties.  The  teacher  must  preserve 
his  health  if  his  work  is  to  be  maximally  effective.  The 
work  of  the  classroom  is  extremely  fatiguing  —  far  more 
so,  in  the  writer's  experience,  than  anything  in  the  way  of 
administration  or  supervision.  One's  attention  must  be 
continually  concentrated,  and  concentrated  upon  the  same 
thing  for  relatively  long  periods  of  time.  It  is  for  this 
reason  that  every  effort  must  be  made  to  supply  an  ade- 
quate amount  of  energy  and  to  husband  this  energy  against 
the  time  when  effective  concentration  is  most  needed. 
Sufficient  sleep  is  the  first  requisite,  and  not  even  a  zeal 
for  the  preparation  of  lessons  should  interfere  with  regular 
hours  of  complete  rest.  Exercise  is  also  important,  and 
many  teachers  devote  the  hour  from  five  to  six  to  exercise 
in  the  open  air.  Next  to  sufficient  sleep  an  abundance 
of  nutritious  food,  rich  in  proteids,  should  be  the  last  fac- 
tor to  neglect.  For  those  engaged  mainly  in  intellectual 
work,  the  heavy  meal  of  the  day  should  come  at  the  close 
of  the  day's  work,  not  at  noon.  The  processes  of  digestion 
can  then  be  given  the  necessary  two  hours  in  which  to  do 


THE   DISPOSITION  OF  THE  TEACHER'S  TIME         257 

their  work  before  one  attacks  the  serious  tasks  of  the 
evening. 

9.  (c)  Civic  Duties.  The  ideal  democracy  is  not  direct 
government  by  the  people,  but  rather  a  government  by 
experts  who  are  responsible  to  the  people  and  in  whom 
the  people  can  repose  implicit  confidence.  It  is  incon- 
sistent, to  say  the  least,  to  leave  governmental  functions 
to  amateurs  when  every  other  department  of  the  division 
of  labor  is  in  the  hands  of  specialists.  This  ideal,  however, 
is  far  in  the  future,  and  until  it  is  realized  every  citizen 
must  devote  a  portion  of  his  time  and  energy  to  the  work 
of  government.  The  teacher  is  no  exception  to  this  rule, 
although  the  fact  that  most  teachers  are  women,  and  that 
women  have  little  direct  influence  in  political  matters 
makes  the  situation  here  rather  different  from  that  which 
obtains  in  other  crafts  and  professions.  Nevertheless  even 
women  teachers  should  interest  themselves  in  political 
movements,  and  use  every  influence  within  their  power  to 
promote  the  ends  of  civic  virtue.  They  should,  at  least,  give 
the  inspiration  of  their  presence  to  associations  and  meet- 
ings that  have  for  their  object  civic  improvement.  In  not 
a  few  instances  municipal  reforms  in  the  direction  of 
cleaner  streets,  more  artistic  buildings,  better  parks,  more 
equitable  taxation,  etc.,  owe  their  initiation  to  the  activity 
of  public  school  teachers;  and  every  expression  of  sane 
and  temperate  public  spirit  on  the  part  of  teachers  cannot 
fail  to  act  reflexly  upon  the  schools  themselves,  giving  them 
an  increased  hold  upon  the  respect  of  the  community,  and 
elevating  their  importance  in  the  eyes  of  the  pupils. 


258  CLASSROOM    MANAGEMENT 

Nor  must  the  teacher  be  blind  to  the  responsibility  that  rests 
upon  him  for  developing  effective  ideals  of  civic  virtue  in  the 
minds  of  his  pupils.  All  dominant  ideals  of  conduct  must 
have  their  inception  in  childhood  and  youth.  Reforms  can 
be  initiated  "from  the  top,"  but  if  such  reforms  are  to  be 
permanent,  their  necessity  must  be  impressed  upon  the  minds 
of  the  rising  generation.  The  contemporary  revolution  in  the 
ethics  of  government,  of  politics,  and  of  business  enterprises 
will  doubtless  have  but  small  effect  upon  the  conduct  of  the 
great  mass  of  men  and  women  belonging  to  the  dominant 
generation.  These  men  and  women  will  indeed  admit  the 
necessity  of  such  reforms,  but  their  habits  are  too  firmly  estab- 
lished to  be  transformed  in  a  day;  they  have  been  looking  at 
things  in  a  different  light  too  long  to  admit  of  a  sudden  ''change 
of  front,"  no  matter  how  acutely  the  need  of  such  a  change 
may  be  felt.  But  all  this  agitation  toward  a  higher  conception 
of  public  service  should  furnish  the  most  favorable  condition 
for  inspiring  youth  with  higher  standards  and  ideals  than  those 
which  govern  the  present  generation,  and  the  duty  of  the  school 
plainly  lies  in  this  direction.  The  teacher  should  never  lose 
sight  of  the  fact  that  it  is  within  his  power  to  transform  the 
character  of  a  race,  for  the  character  of  a  race  is  determined  by 
its  dominant  ideals,  and  these  the  skillful  teacher  can  mold  to 
his  own  liking.  That  the  hope  of  the  future  lies  in  the  youth  of 
the  present  is  a  platitude  so  often  repeated  as  quite  to  hide  from 
view  its  fundamental  truth.  And  yet  each  new  interpretation 
of  education  from  the  standpoint  of  modem  science,  and  each 
new  investigation  into  the  history  of  education  among  different 
people  and  diverse  races,  add  convincing  testimony  to  this  fact. 
The  opportunity  lies  with  the  school,  and,  under  our  modern 
conception  of  ethics,  with  opportunity  must  go  responsibility. 

10.  (d)  Social  Duties.  Recreation  in  one  form  or 
another  is  necessary  for  maximal  efficiency  in  any  line  of 


THE   DISPOSITION   OF   THE   TEACHER'S   TIME         259 

work,  and  nothing  more  accurately  indicates  the  character 
of  a  man  than  the  way  in  which  he  seeks  recreation  — 
the  way  in  which  he  spends  his  leisure.  For  the  teacher, 
dealing  as  he  does  with  immature  minds,  some  form  of 
recreation  that  will  afford  a  complete  change  of  environ- 
ment is  absolutely  essential  if  he  is  to  escape  the  intolerable 
pedantry  and  dogmatism  to  which  the  members  of  his  craft 
are  so  commonly  subject.  He  should  frequently  seek  social 
diversion  among  men  and  women  who  are  engaged  in  other 
lines  of  work.  He  must  strive  to  retain  that  plasticity  of 
adjustment  that  will  enable  him  successfully  to  adapt  him- 
self to  general  rather  than  technical  interests.  This  does 
not  mean  that  he  should  be  ashamed  of  his  colleagues  in 
education,  or  ashamed  of  his  calling  as  a  teacher.  It 
simply  means  that,  in  common  with  men  and  women  in 
other  walks  of  life,  he  should  be  able  to  drop  his  profes- 
sional mannerisms  on  occasion  and  to  think  and  talk  in 
terms  other  than  those  used  in  his  daily  work. 

II.  What  proportion  of  his  time  may  the  teacher  devote 
to  social  diversion?  Of  course  one  cannot  propose  a 
dogmatic  answer  to  this  question,  but  there  are  certain 
factors  that  should  be  borne  in  mind  in  every  specific 
determination.  The  necessity  for  evening  work  will  pre- 
clude social  engagements  on  at  least  five  evenings  of  the 
week.  The  teacher  is  sometimes  apt  to  rebel  at  this 
suggestion,  forgetting  that,  unlike  workers  in  other  fields, 
he  has  one  day  each  week  (usually  Saturday)  free  from 
classroom  employment.  In  return  for  this,  the  community 
has  a  right  to  expect  longer  actual  hours  of  work  upon 


26o  CLASSROOM    MANAGEMENT 

Other  days.  This  arrangement,  however,  leaves  two  even- 
ings free  for  recreation.  The  teacher  is  also  unique  in 
having  a  longer  annual  vacation  than  other  workers.  Cer- 
tainly a  part  of  this  vacation  should  be  spent  in  pro- 
fessional improvement  —  "keeping  up  with  the  times"; 
but  the  rest  is  free  for  whatever  healthful  recreation  the 
teacher  may  care  to  take.  On  the  whole,  therefore,  it  is 
hardly  too  much  to  expect  of  a  teacher  that,  during  five 
days  of  each  week  throughout  the  school  year,  he  make 
the  problems  of  his  daily  work  the  dominant  subject  of 
his  attention. 

References.  —  Button:  School  Management^  chs.  ii,  iii;  Seeley: 
A  New  School  Management,  ch.  xviii;  W.  E.  Chancellor:  Our 
Schools:  Their  Administration  and  Supervision^  Boston,  1905,  ch.  xi; 
Keith:  Elementary  Education^  ch.  xiv. 


CHAPTER  XVII 

The  Teacher's  Relation  to  Principal,  Supervisors, 
AND  Superintendent 

I.  The  successful  operation  of  a  school  system  involves 
the  organized  effort  of  a  number  of  individuals  toward  a 
common  end.  As  in  other  social  institutions,  the  highest 
degree  of  efi&ciency  is  secured  by  centralizing  authority 
and  responsibility  in  a  single  individual.  To  this  indi- 
vidual is  delegated  a  degree  of  power  commensurate 
(theoretically,  at  least)  with  his  responsibiUty.  In  some 
systems  both  the  power  and  the  responsibility  of  the 
superintendent  of  schools  are  almost  negligible  factors: 
the  office  is  a  mere  bagatelle,  concerned  only  with  clerical 
and  mechanical  functions.  There  can  be  no  doubt,  how- 
ever, that  the  present  tendency  is  toward  a  stronger  and 
closer  organization  of  educational  forces  within  the  limits 
of  a  conveniently  large  "working  imit."  The  city  com- 
munity represents  the  type  of  such  a  unit.  The  county 
school  system  and  the  state  school  system  must  necessarily 
be  much  looser  in  their  organization  because  of  the  diffi- 
culty that  confronts  a  single  head  in  governing  widely 
separated  elements. 

Wherever  a  system  of  schools  exists,  the  classroom 
teacher  is  responsible  to  the  head  of  that  system,  who  in 
turn  is  responsible  to  the  representative  board  of  educq.- 


262  CLASSROOM    MANAGEMENT 

tion,  and  this  body  to  the  community  at  large.  Owing  to 
the  complex  character  of  our  governmental  machinery, 
however,  a  division  of  responsibiHty  commonly  confronts 
the  superintendent,  for  he  is  answerable  not  only  to  local 
authorities,  but  often  to  state  authorities. 

2.  Generally  between  the  superintendent  and  the  class- 
room teacher  intervenes  the  principal  of  the  building. 
The  office  of  principal  is  now  recognized  as  one  of  the 
most  important  in  the  school  system  —  perhaps,  every- 
thing considered,  the  most  influential  for  good  or  ill.  The 
position  of  the  principal  is  quite  analogous  to  that  of  a 
ship's  captain.  He  is  responsible  for  everything  that 
belongs  to  or  goes  on  within  the  limits  of  his  school,  — 
for  the  instruction,  for  the  discipline,  for  the  care  and 
condition  of  the  material  equipment.  Teachers,  super- 
visors, and  janitors  are  all  answerable  to  him  for  the 
eflficiency  of  their  work.  The  prevailing  tendency  is  to 
relieve  the  principal  of  teaching  duties  in  order  that  he 
may  devote  all  of  his  time  and  energy  to  the  general  wel- 
fare of  the  school. 

3.  An  obvious  corollary  of  this  condition  is  the  necessity 
for  loyalty  on  the  part  of  each  subordinate  to  his  chief. 
A  centralized  organization  can  be  effective  upon  no  other 
assumption.  Unquestioned  obedience  is  the  first  rule  of 
eflficient  service.  The  classroom  teacher  owes  this  to  his 
superiors,  and  whenever  he  cannot  yield  such  obedience, 
his  resignation  is  the  only  alternative. 

In  practice,  this  condition  is  not  so  arbitrary  and  auto- 
cratic as  it  may  appear  in  cold  print.    The  responsibility 


THE  teacher's   RELATION  TO   PRINCIPAL         263 

of  teacher  to  principal  or  superintendent  is  almost  ex- 
clusively a  responsibility  jor  results.  Certain  requirements 
are  made  in  the  way  of  results.  Pupils  must  be  taught 
certain  facts,  drilled  into  certain  habits,  in  each  grade. 
The  superintendent  demands  these  results  of  his  principals, 
the  principals  pass  on  the  demand  to  the  classroom  teachers, 
the  classroom  teachers  exact  the  required  work  from  the 
pupils.  A  group  of  unorganized  teachers,  each  working 
independently  and  unsupervised,  might  secure  the  same 
results,  but  the  chances  are  strongly  against  the  suppo- 
sition. Centrahzed  authority,  working  through  inter- 
mediate officials,  is  the  only  known  method  of  insuring 
economy  of  school  administration  in  this  respect. 

When  it  comes  to  the  details  of  method  and  the  tech- 
nique of  instruction,  however,  the  classroom  teacher  is 
left  very  largely  to  his  own  initiative.  Superintendents 
and  principals  rarely  go  beyond  suggestion  in  such  mat- 
ters, although  there  are  sometimes  occasions  when  sugges- 
tion must  be  interpreted  to  mean  authoritative  direction. 
The  same  is  true  in  respect  of  discipline.  It  is  the  end 
of  discipHne  that  is  important  in  the  eyes  of  the  princi- 
pal and  superintendent;  the  teacher  must  work  out  the 
method.  It  will  readily  be  seen  that  the  initiative  of  the 
classroom  teacher  has  still  a  large  scope  even  under  rigid 
systems  of  organization  and  supervision. 

It  must  not  be  inferred  that  the  classroom  teacher  has  no 
voice,  even  in  the  larger  questions  of  policy  in  the  administra- 
tion of  the  school  system.  Although  the  typical  organization 
appears  to  be  little  less  than  an  autocracy  when  viewed  from 


264  CXASSROOM    MANAGEMENT 

the  outside,  it  is  almost  a  democracy  in  the  great  majority  of 
city  systems.  The  classroom  teachers  are  regularly  assembled 
for  discussion  of  important  questions  with  the  principal  of  the 
school,  and  the  principals  meet  regularly  with  the  superintend- 
ent. In  small  systems  all  of  the  teachers  meet  together  at 
frequent  intervals.  The  general  policy  in  all  such  meetings 
is  to  permit  absolute  freedom  of  speech.  If  a  subordinate 
teacher  does  not  agree  with  any  prescription  that  is  made  for 
his  conduct,  he  is  generally  at  liberty  to  state  his  reasons  in  this 
forum.  It  would  be  a  rash  superintendent,  indeed,  who  would 
attempt  to  carry  through  a  measure  that  met  decided  disap- 
proval from  his  subordinates.  Whenever  a  decision  is  reached, 
however,  the  subordinates  must  accept  it,  no  matter  what  their 
individual  opinions  may  be.  Discussion  is  then  closed  and  the 
time  for  action  has  arrived.* 

4.  The  Teacher  and  the  Special  Supervisors.  Practically 
all  of  the  larger  systems  of  schools  now  employ  special 
supervisors  of  music,  drawing,  manual  training,  and 
sometimes  physical  culture  and  nature  study.  These  su- 
pervisors go  from  school  to  school,  giving  model  lessons 
in  each  room  and  instructing  the  classroom  teachers  in 
the  technique  of  their  special  branches.  The  classroom 
teacher  is  responsible  to  the  supervisor  for  the  special 
work  supervised,  and  for  the  methods  employed  in  such 
work.  The  supervisor  is,  however,  under  the  nominal 
control  of  the  principal  in  whose  building  he  chances  to 
be  at  work,   consequently  the  classroom  teacher's  first 

^  An  able  discussion  of  the  relation  of  the  classroom  teacher  to  the 
principal  and  superintendent  will  be  found  in  a  paper  by  ex-Superintendent 
E.  P.  Seaver  of  Boston,  published  in  the  Report  of  the  Commissioner  oj 
Education^  Washington,  1899,  pp.  546  ff» 


THE  teacher's   RELATION  TO   PRINCIPAL         265 

loyalty  is  to  the  principal.  This  rule  does  not  hold  in  all 
cases,  but  it  is  manifestly  the  only  way  in  which  an  equi- 
table balance  can  be  maintained  between  different  lines  of 
special  work. 

5.  Supervision  in  Rural  Schools.  The  teacher  in  a  dis- 
trict or  ungraded  country  school  is  nominally  under  the 
control  of  the  county  superintendent  or  commissioner  of 
education,  and  through  him  responsible  to  the  state  depart- 
ment of  public  instruction.  In  practice,  however,  the 
county  superintendent  exercises  but  little  supervision  over 
his  subordinate  teachers.  Schools  are  so  widely  separated 
that  he  can  visit  them  only  infrequently,  and  inasmuch 
as  his  office  is  almost  universally  a  political  prize,  he  is 
naturally  very  careful  about  making  severe  criticisms. 
In  general,  the  only  checks  upon  the  work  of  the  rural 
teacher  are  his  own  conscientiousness  and  the  very  fallible 
judgment  of  his  patrons.  It  is  perhaps  owing  to  the 
generally  high  character  of  the  former  factor  that  the 
results  in  the  rural  schools  are  as  good  as  they  are.  No 
more  pressing  problem  confronts  American  education, 
however,  than  to  provide  some  effective  means  of  super- 
vising the  rural  schools. 

6.  Summary,  The  problem  of  the  relation  of  the  class- 
room teacher  to  his  superior  officers  should  be  solved  by 
an  attitude  of  obedience  to  constituted  authority.  This  is 
very  far  from  saying  that  the  teacher  should  adopt  an 
attitude  of  servihty ;  intelligent  loyalty  is  the  better  term 
to  employ.  The  situation  is  entirely  analogous  to  that 
in  any  other  organization  or  system,  —  the  army,  the 


266  CLASSROOM    MANAGEMENT 

^avy,  governmental  departments,  great  business  enter- 
prises (or  small  business  enterprises,  for  that  matter). 
Concentrated  effort  can  be  secured  in  no  other  way. 
The  teacher  should  thoroughly  understand  this  basal 
proposition  and  act  in  accordance  with  its  dictates  from 
the  outset.  Youth  is  prone  to  resent  authority.  Indeed,  it 
is  hardly  too  much  to  say  that  our  contemporary  theories 
of  education  do  much,  perhaps  unconsciously,  to  inculcate 
an  attitude  antagonistic  to  authority.  This  represents  a 
healthful  reaction  against  the  ultra-machine  tendency 
prevalent  in  school  organization  some  years  ,ago,  but  it 
is  a  reaction  that  can  easily  be  carried  too  far. 

References.  —  W.  E.  Chancellor:  Our  Schools:  Their  Adminis- 
tration and  Supervision,  Boston,  1905,  chs.  iv-vii;  Button:  School 
Management,  chs.  vi,  xix;  Seeley:  A  New  School  Management, 
ch.  xix;   Roark:   Economy  in  Editcation,  pp.  88-91. 


CHAPTER  XVm 

The  Ethics  of  Schoolcraft 

I.  The  relation  of  the  classroom  teacher  to  his  prin- 
cipal and  superintendent  is  but  one  of  the  many  questions 
that  are  gradually  becoming  crystallized  in  the  unwritten 
laws  that  govern  the  teacher's  calling.  Every  trade  and 
profession  must  possess  a  recognized  code  of  craft  ethics, 
—  certain  standards  of  right  and  wrong,  honor  and  dis- 
honor, as  these  terms  are  appHed  in  the  special  field  that 
the  trade  or  profession  covers.  The  tenets  and  doctrines 
of  these  ethical  systems  are  sometimes  elaborately  organized 
and  impose  restrictions  upon  the  members  of  the  guild 
the  value  of  which  a  layman  may  frequently  find  it  hard 
to  appreciate.  The  ethics  of  medicine,  for  example,  for- 
bids a  physician  to  advertise  his  services  save  in  a  most 
modest  and  unobtrusive  fashion.  The  moment  that  the 
physician  breaks  this  unwritten  law,  he  is  ostracized  from 
the  society  of  his  fellow-craftsmen.  MiHtary  service  is 
carefully  guarded  by  restrictions,  imposed  by  military  tra- 
dition, which  demand  of  all  initiates  into  the  service  a 
standard  of  personal  honor  that  is  much  more  exacting 
than  similar  standards  in  civil  life.  The  various  fields 
of  fine  art  —  music,  painting,  sculpture,  architecture  — 
are  also  dominated  by  codes  of  craft  ethics  many  of  whose 
tenets  are  frequently  meaningless  to  the  uninitiated.    Nor 

267 


268  CLASSROOM    MANAGEMENT 

are  the  manual  trades  exceptions  to  the  general  rule: 
carpenters,  plumbers,  stonecutters,  metal  workers,  all 
have  their  pecuHar  standards  and  ideals  in  which  each 
apprentice  is  carefully  instructed,  and  to  which  he  must 
prove  his  fidelity  or  lose  the  caste  of  craft. 

The  essence  of  the  craft  or  professional  spirit  is  revealed 
in  each  of  these  instances ;  in  matters  pertaining  solely  to 
craft  welfare,  the  members  of  each  guild  legislate  for  them- 
selves.  The  guild  is  essentially  a  close  corporation;  its 
rulings  are  self-imposed,  self-sustained,  and  self-sufiicient. 

2.  From  one  point  of  view,  education  suffers  in  com- 
parison with  other  human  callings  in  just  this  fact :  it  has 
not  as  yet  developed  an  adequate  system  of  craft  ethics. 
If  a  human  calling  would  win  the  world's  respect,  it  must 
first  respect  itself.  And  the  more  thoroughly  it  respects 
itself,  the  richer  will  be  the  measure  of  homage  that  the 
world  renders  it.  War,  medicine,  art,  literature  —  all 
bear  testimony  to  this  principle.  To  be  faithful  to  the 
craft  spirit  is  the  highest  ambition  of  a  true  soldier,  a  true 
physician,  a  true  artist.  To  lose  the  caste  of  craft  is  the 
most  severe  punishment  that  can  be  inflicted  upon  him. 
For  the  plaudits  or  the  sneers  of  the  crowd  he  cares  but 
little.  He  seeks  commendation  from  another  source  — 
from  a  source  that  metes  it  out  less  lavishly,  and  yet  with 
unconditioned  candor;  he  seeks  the  commendation  of  his 
fellow-workmen,  the  applause  of  those  who  know, 

3.  And  what  are  some  of  the  ideals  and  standards  that 
the  new  Schoolcraft  is  slowly  crystallizing  into  an  ethical 
code?    First  and  foremost  stands  the  conviction  that  the 


THE   ETHICS   OF  SCHOOLCRAFT  269 

work  of  teaching  is  coordinate  in  rank  and  dignity  with 
other  branches  of  the  pubHc  service;  that  its  work  to  be 
done  well  must  be  done  by  trained  specialists  who  devote 
their  best  energies  to  the  solution  of  its  problems;  that 
any  one  who  looks  upon  it  as  a  "stepping-stone"  or  a 
"time-filler"  offers  it  an  insult  which  mere  decency  and 
self-respect  demand  that  it  resent.  And  the  true  teacher 
will  not  be  patronized.  He  does  not  need  to  be  told  that 
his  work  is  "the  noblest  and  highest  of  all  human  call- 
ings "  —  a  sample  of  the  pious  mouthings  not  infrequently 
voiced  by  men  who  would  not  for  a  moment  encourage 
their  sons  to  enter  the  work  of  the  public  schools.  If  the 
teacher  is  a  true  craftsman,  he  knows  what  education  means 
—  he  knows  this  far  better  than  a  layman  can  tell  him. 

4.  In  the  second  place,  the  craft  spirit  in  education  will 
insist  that  its  own  trained  and  expert  judgment  shall  es- 
tablish craft  standards  of  excellence  and  efl&ciency.  It  will 
resent  the  unwarranted  interference  of  laymen  in  purely 
technical  matters.  It  will  resent  such  interference  manfully 
and  vigorously  as  would  a  reputable  physician,  a  reputable 
artist,  or  a  reputable  engineer  in  a  similar  situation. 

5.  In  the  third  place,  the  craft  spirit  in  education  will 
turn  a  deaf  ear  to  excuses.  It  will  hold  each  member  of 
the  guild  strictly  responsible  for  the  task  that  he  has 
assumed.  Not  the  inefficiency  of  previous  teachers,  nor 
the  poverty  of  the  homes  from  which  pupils  come,  nor 
the  peculiar  conditions  of  the  social  environment,  will  be 
accepted  in  heu  of  the  results  demanded.  This  seems  the 
cruelest,  the  most  relentless,  of  all  possible  standards  — 


270  CLASSROOM    MANAGEMENT 

and  yet  it  is  the  only  standard  that  will  bring  Schoolcraft  to 
an  equal  rank  with  other  callings.  As  Kipling  says  of  Find- 
layson  in  the  Bridge  Builders :  "  There  were  no  excuses  in 
his  work.  Government  might  listen,  perhaps,  but  his  own 
kind  would  judge  him  by  his  bridge,  as  that  stood  or  fell.'' 

6.  In  the  fourth  place,  the  craft  spirit  will  demand  high 
standards  of  scholarship  and  preparatory  training  for 
admittance  to  the  guild.  It  will  reject  the  idea  that,  be- 
cause teachers  deal  with  little  children,  their  minds  are 
the  minds  of  children,  or  that  their  intellectual  pabulum 
should  consist  of  milk  and  water.  It  will  stand  for  reason 
and  abjure  sentiment. 

7.  In  the  fifth  place,  it  will  insist  upon  the  conception  of 
Schoolcraft  as  social  service^  and  that  the  rewards  of  such 
service  are  not  to  he  measured  in  dollars  and  cents.  In  this 
respect  it  will  class  its  guild  with  art,  music,  literature, 
discovery,  invention,  and  pure  science.  If  all  of  the 
workers  in  each  of  these  lines  of  human  activity  demanded 
of  the  world  the  real  fruits  of  their  self-sacrifice  and  labor, 
—  if  they  received  all  of  the  riches  that  have  flowed, 
directly  or  indirectly,  from  their  efforts,  —  there  would  be 
very  little  left  for  the  rest  of  mankind.  Each  of  these 
activities  is  dominated  by  a  craft  spirit  which  recognizes 
this  fundamental  truth.  The  artist  or  the  scientist  who 
has  an  itching  palm,  who  prostitutes  his  craft  for  the  sake 
of  worldly  gain,  is  quickly  relegated  to  the  oblivion  that 
he  deserves.  He  loses  the  caste  of  craft  which  is  more 
precious  to  the  true  craftsman  than  all  the  gold  of  the 
modem  Midas.    In  each  of  these  branches  of  activity, 


THE  ETHICS   OF   SCHOOLCRAFT  271 

service  is  its  own  reward,  and  this  must  be  true  of  educa- 
tion. All  that  the  true  teacher  should  ask  of  the  world  is 
a  Uving  wage,  the  privilege  to  serve,  and  "a  seat  at  the 
table  around  which  the  competent  members  of  his  guild 
hold  council." 

If  one  should  think  this  standard  to  be  visionary  and  im- 
practicable, a  brief  acquaintance  with  the  ideals  of  other  crafts 
and  professions  will  quickly  dispel  the  illusion.  Let  such  a 
person  turn  to  the  biographies  of  Darwin,  Spencer,  Helm- 
holtz,  Huxley,  Miiller,  Newton,  and  a  score  of  other  masters 
in  science.  Let  him  inquire  of  the  men  on  the  geological  survey 
who  first  laid  bare  the  great  gold  deposits  in  Alaska  and  still 
remained  faithful  to  their  service  and  content  with  their  pittance. 
Let  him  ask  the  scholars  at  a  score  of  universities.  Let  him 
ask  any  one  of  a  thousand  talented  men  who  are  devoting  their 
lives  to  painting,  sculpture,  music,  pure  literature,  for  the  sake 
of  an  art  that  they  might  far  more  comfortably  commercialize 
and  exploit  for  their  own  pecuniary  benefit.  The  answer  will 
be  the  same  in  every  instance.  All  that  these  men  ask  is  a 
living  wage  and  a  chance  to  serve.  It  is  only  a  great  national 
delusion  —  a  virulent  jaundice  of  the  mind  —  that  leads  men 
to  believe  that  efficient  service  can  be  obtained  only  under  the 
stimulus  of  the  dollar.  Our  national  ideal,  "Material  success 
at  any  price,"  has  woefully  distorted  our  perspective.* 

*  The  advice  of  the  late  Senator  Hoar  to  the  students  of  the  Yale  Law 
School  represents  an  effort  to  reestablish  in  the  legal  profession  the  ideals 
of  service  that  formerly  inspired  the  lawyer  to  his  best  work.  The  fol- 
lowing extract  indicates  the  spirit  of  his  plea :  — 

"  If  you  will  walk  these  high  paths,  you  must  abandon  the  pursuit  of 
wealth  as  a  principal  01  considerable  object.  Of  course  the  lawyer  must 
have  his  quiddant  honorarium.  He  must  have  his  ample  library.  He 
must  provide  for  his  wife  and  children  a  comfortable  home,  lay  up  some- 
thing for  old  age,  and  start  his  children  in  life  with  a  good  education,  and 
the  stimulant  of  his  own  good  example.    That  is  pretty  much  all.    I  hope 


272  CLASSROOM    MANAGEMENT 

8.  In  the  sixth  place,  the  craft  spirit  in  education  will 
abjure  pedantry  and  dogmatism.  It  will  discount  the 
hypertrophied  "  good-goodyism "  that  so  often  emanates 
from  an  overweening  consciousness  of  mental  or  moral 
superiority.  It  will  hold  industry,  courage,  and  effi- 
ciency as  the  cardinal  virtues;  sloth,  inefficiency,  and 
covetousness  as  the  cardinal  sins. 

9.  Fundamentally,  teaching  is  a  creative  as  well  as  a 
conservative  art.  Its  task  is  to  mold  a  certain  raw  ma- 
terial into  a  certain  desired  product.  Society  imposes 
certain  limitations  and  restrictions  upon  the  process  of 
creation  in  education,  just  as  convention  restricts  the 
painter,  the  sculptor,  the  composer,  the  poet.  The  prod- 
uct must  represent  certain  definite  minimal  requirements; 
but  when  this  condition  is  once  fulfilled,  the  teacher,  like 
the  artist,  has  a  large  scope  for  his  creative  talent. 

Society  demands  that  the  product  of  the  school  shall 
be  able  to  read  and  write  and  "cipher."  These  conserva- 
tive factors  will  always  form  an  irreducible  minimum  of 

to  see  our  profession  everywhere  return  to  its  ancient  and  healthy  abhor- 
rence of  everything  that  savors  of  speculation  in  justice.  When  you  are 
once  known  to  the  people,  not  as  masters  of  the  law,  but  as  traders  and 
traffickers  seeking  your  own  gain,  the  virtue  has  gone  out  of  you."  — 
Quoted  by  W.  G.  Cook,  in  North  American  Review^  1906,  vol.  clxxxiii, 
p.  114.  A  similar  view  with  regard  to  the  profession  of  scholarship  is 
taken  by  Professor  W.  M.  Payne  {International  Quarterly,  1904,  vol.  viii, 
p.  273):  "That  scholar  is  unworthy  of  his  high  office  who  joins  in  the 
querulous  complaint  raised  now  and  again  to  the  efifect  that  scholarship 
does  not  command  material  rewards  proportional  to  those  won  by  other 
forms  of  endeavor.  Are  its  own  peculiar  rewards  to  count  for  nothing 
then  —  its  honors,  its  self-sufficing  activities,  its  sense  of  the  esteem  in 
which  it  is  held  by  all  whose  approval  is  worth  having?" 


THE   ETHICS   OF   SCHOOLCRAFT  273 

education.  Their  necessity  is  inherent  in  the  very  essence 
of  civilization,  for  civilization  demands  first  of  all  that 
men  lead  the  social  Hfe  at  the  very  foundation  of  which 
must  always  lie  an  effective  medium  of  communication; 
and  civiHzation  demands  a  division  of  labor  and  the 
interdependence  of  social  units  for  material  necessities 
and  comforts,  and  for  this  reason  an  effective  means  of 
computation  is  indispensable.  If  civihzation  were  to 
begin  anew,  formal  education  would  still  be  face  to  face 
with  the  three  R's. 

But  the  finished  product  of  the  teacher's  art  must  be 
more  than  a  reading-writing-ciphering  automaton.  It 
must  represent  a  highly  complex  mechanism  of  civilized 
habits,  deHcately  adjusted  to  respond  effectively  to  the 
innumerable  stimuli  of  an  increasingly  complex  social 
life.  It  must  represent  a  storehouse  of  organized  race- 
experience,  conserved  against  the  time  when  knowledge 
shall  be  needed  in  the  constructive  solution  of  new  and 
untried  problems.  It  must  represent  the  initiative  that 
is  competent  to  adapt  means  to  ends  in  the  solution  of 
such  problems.  And,  beyond  all  this,  it  must  represent 
ideals  —  those  intangible  forces  that  can  lift  a  race  in  a 
single  century  through  a  greater  distance  than  it  has 
traversed  in  all  preceding  ages.  Every  teacher  who  comes 
in  contact  with  the  plastic  material  that  we  designate  as 
childhood  and  youth  can  add  a  touch  to  this  creative 
process  —  can  influence  definitely,  tangibly,  unerringly, 
the  type  of  manhood  and  womanhood  that  is  to  dominate 
the  succeeding  generation. 


APPENDIX  A 

SUGGESTIONS  FOR  THE  STUDY  OF  CLASSROOM  TECH- 
NIQUE THROUGH  OBSERVATION 

Courses  in  the  observation  of  classroom  work  are  to  be 
found  in  the  curricula  of  practically  all  normal  schools.  They 
are  also  coming  into  favor  in  the  universities  that  offer  instruc- 
tion in  the  theory  and  practice  of  education.  It  is  the  writer's 
belief  that  observation  of  expert  teaching  forms  an  indispen- 
sable part  of  the  candidate's  training.  His  own  experience  in 
normal  school  work  of  different  types  has  offered  opportunities 
for  comparisons,  and  has  led  him  to  conclude  that  the  students 
who  enter  upon  their  practice  teaching  after  a  systematic  course 
of  observation  under  supervision  do  much  better  work  at  the 
outset,  make  fewer  mistakes,  and  apply  their  theoretical  peda- 
gogy more  effectively  than  the  students  who  go  to  practice 
without  this  preparatory  observation. 

It  seems  to  be  tolerably  certain  that  the  beginning  teacher 
follows,  in  his  first  efforts,  some  concrete  model  of  teaching. 
The  most  common  procedure  is  to  imitate  one's  own  instruc- 
tors. If  these  instructors  are  engaged  in  teaching  relatively 
mature  students,  it  is  obvious  that  their  technique  will  not 
always  be  adapted  to  the  pupils  in  the  lower  grades.  The  most 
frequent  cause  of  failure  among  college  graduates  who  go  into 
elementary  and  secondary  teaching  is  admittedly  the  tendency  oi 
such  beginners  to  employ  college  methods  in  their  instruction.* 

If  the  beginner  does  not  imitate  the  instructors  from  whose 

» Cf.  some  statistics  upon  this  point  gathered  by  Professor  M.  V.  O'Shea 
published  in  School  Review,  1902,  vol.  x,  pp.  778  ff. 

275 


276  CLASSROOM  MANAGEMENT 

classrooms  he  has  just  come,  the  chances  are  that  he  will  imi- 
tate his  earlier  teachers  in  so  far  as  he  can  recall  the  methods 
and  devices  that  they  employed.  In  some  cases,  this  will  result 
in  the  initiation  of  valuable  habits  of  technique;  more  fre- 
quently, however,  the  formation  of  good  habits  is  impeded 
rather  than  helped  by  this  process. 

A  third  procedure,  which  is  rarely  met  with  in  actual  practice, 
is  the  adjustment  of  the  teacher  to  his  new  work  on  the  basis  of 
the  principles  that  he  has  assimilated  during  his  study  of  theo- 
retical pedagogy  —  "general  method"  and  ''special  methods." 
This  is  a  rare  procedure  in  the  beginner,  because  it  involves  the 
operation  of  the  conceptual  judgment.  The  line  of  least  re- 
sistance is  to  solve  a  new  situation  by  a  practical  judgment  — 
by  the  conscious  recall  of  a  concrete  experience  and  an  imita- 
tive adjustment,  copying,  as  faithfully  as  may  be,  the  details  of 
this  recalled  experience.  As  a  matter  of  fact,  the  connection 
between  theory  and  practice  is  very  seldom  made  by  the  begin- 
ning teacher,  unless  the  theoretical  instruction  has  been  imparted 
in  a  manner  that  will  enable  the  student  vividly  to  associate  with 
each  principle  a  concrete  image  of  its  practical  application  in 
the  classroom.  Many  students  complete  with  high  honor 
strenuous  courses  in  psychology  and  in  educational  theory, 
and  then  proceed  as  quickly  as  possible  to  forget  what  they 
have  acquired,  because  they  can  find  in  actual  school  work  no 
instance  of  the  application  of  the  facts  and  principles  that  they 
have  learned.* 

A  practicable  —  and,    in    the  writer's  experience,  a  most 

*  In  this  connection  it  is  interesting  to  note  the  strangely  inconsistent  policy 
in  normal  school  practice  which  insists  that  the  student  shall  first  study  ab- 
stract theory  and  then  note  its  application,  while  the  very  first  principle  that 
the  theory  itself  teaches  is  that  education  must  proceed  from  the  concrete  to 
the  abstract,  and  from  cases  to  principles. 


APPENDIX  A  277 

successful  —  solution  of  this  problem  is  to  parallel  the  courses 
in  psychology  and  educational  theory  with  such  observation  of 
actual  classroom  work  as  will  illustrate  the  principles  and  pre- 
cepts as  they  are  developed.  In  this  way  an  immediate  connec- 
tion is  made  between  the  principles  and  the  cases  upon  which 
they  rest,  and  the  student  is  supplied  with  concrete  images  of 
classroom  technique  which  he  can  apply  when  he  begins  his 
practice  teaching. 

General  Principles  of  Observation.  —  It  is  a  fallacy  of  edu- 
cational theory  to  look  upon  the  study  of  concrete  cases  as  in- 
trinsically easier  and  less  fatiguing  than  the  study  of  general 
principles.  Objective  teaching  is,  by  far,  the  most  difficult 
form  of  teaching.  It  is  easy,  indeed,  to  watch  objective  proc- 
esses that  are  novel  and  for  that  reason  attractive  from  the 
standpoint  of  passive  attention;  but  to  obtain  from  objective 
study  anything  of  real  value  requires  the  closest  sort  of  concen- 
tration and  a  marked  degree  of  sustained  attention.  Simply 
sending  students  to  an  elementary  classroom  with  instructions 
to  "observe"  the  work  of  the  teacher  is  a  good  way  to  begin, 
but  it  cannot  be  profitably  employed  after  one  or  two  visits. 
The  matter  must  be  taken  up  systematically  and  attacked  ag- 
gressively, if  a  measurable  value  is  to  accrue  to  the  time  and 
energy  expended  in  the  work. 

The  following  principles  and  cautions  are  suggested  for  the 
conduct  of  courses  in  observation :  — 

(i)  If  possible,  observation  should  accompany  all  work  in 
educational  theory,  including  psychology,  general  method, 
special  methods,  school  hygiene,  and  school  management. 

(2)  If  it  is  not  practicable  to  devote  so  much  time  to  obser- 
vation, it  should  be  given  just  prior  to  the  beginning  of  practice; 
in  other  words,  the  concrete  images  will  be  less  effectively  recalled 


278  CLASSROOM   MANAGEMENT 

if  a  period  of  long  duration  intervenes  between  the  observation 
and  the  practice. 

(3)  Classrooms  selected  for  observation  should  be  in  charge 
of  teachers  whose  work  can  be  honestly  commended. 

(4)  The  observing  students  should  be  cautioned  at  the  outset 
that  their  duty  is  to  learn  and  not  to  criticise.  The  good 
points  should  be  constantly  emphasized.  Even  the  best  of 
teachers  will  sometimes  make  mistakes,  and  it  requires  very 
little  experience  or  mental  acumen  to  find  fault.  The  hyper- 
critical attitude  should  be  discouraged  from  the  very  first. 

(5)  The  teachers  whose  classrooms  are  visited  should 
thoroughly  understand  that  the  purpose  of  visitation  is  not 
critical.  Otherwise  they  will  almost  invariably  become  self- 
conscious  and  fail  to  do  their  best. 

(6)  Only  occasionally  should  a  teacher  be  asked  to  rearrange 
his  program  for  the  sake  of  providing  exercises  for  the  obser- 
vation classes.  Observators  can  find  almost  every  principle 
of  education  illustrated  in  any  school  exercise. 

(7)  The  instructor  should  at  first  accompany  the  sections  to 
the  class  under  observation,  and  provide  for  a  subsequent 
period  to  discuss  the  points  noted.  After  four  or  five  obser- 
vations made  in  this  way,  syllabi  may  be  used  and  written  re- 
ports required. 

(8)  Observation  sections  should  be  limited  to  the  smallest 
possible  number  of  students;  certainly  not  more  than  ten 
should  visit  an  elementary  classroom  of  the  average  size  at  one 
time.^  When  syllabi  are  used,  observators  can  go  to  class- 
rooms alone  or  in  pairs. 

^  In  some  of  the  recently  constructed  training  school  buildings,  amphi- 
theaters are  provided  for  the  presentation  of  model  lessons.  This  plan,  how- 
ever, should  not  exclude  observation  in  the  regular  classrooms,  where  pupils 
work  under  normal  conditions. 


APPENDIX  A  279 

(9)  The  first  observation  may  be  rather  general  in  its  nature, 
but  each  subsequent  observation  should  concentrate  upon  one 
or  two  particular  phases  of  class  work. 

(10)  The  writer  has  found  it  advisable  to  require  an  exami- 
nation at  the  close  of  each  course  in  observation.  This  en- 
courages students  to  take  the  work  seriously,  and  furnishes  an 
additional  incentive  for  attacking  the  problem  aggressively. 
It  is  also  valuable  in  that  it  requires  a  review  of  the  important 
points  and  a  revival  of  significant  images  just  prior  to  the 
beginning  of  practice. 

An  Outline  for  a  Ten  Weeks*  Course  in  Observation.  —  The 
following  outline  is  intended  merely  to  suggest  a  general  plan 
of  treatment.  It  is  based  upon  a  forty  weeks'  course  given  dur- 
ing four  successive  years  at  the  Montana  State  Normal  College, 
and  upon  a  twenty  weeks'  course  given  during  the  present  year 
( 1 906-1 907)  at  the  Oswego  State  Normal  School,*  —  one  period 
a  week  being  devoted  to  the  work  in  each  case.  It  is,  however, 
limited  to  such  phases  of  observation  work  as  might  well  be 
undertaken  in  connection  with  a  course  on  classroom  manage- 
ment. The  same  general  plan  can  be  profitably  applied  in 
connection  with  courses  in  psychology  and  general  educational 
theory. 

First  Period 

This  may  profitably  be  devoted  to  an  explanation  of  the  pur- 
pose of  the  course,  especial  emphasis  being  laid  upon  the  con- 
duct of  the  observators  while  in  the  classroom,  the  attitude 

^  The  writer  is  indebted  to  Superintendent  C.  L.  Robbins,  of  the  Training 
Department  of  the  Montana  Normal  College,  for  many  of  the  questions  pre- 
sented in  the  syllabi.  He  has  also  received  valuable  suggestions  from  Super- 
intendent W.  B.  Mooney  of  the  South  Dakota  State  Normal  School  (Spearfish), 
and  from  Professor  Guy  Montrose  Whipple,  of  Cornell  University. 


28o  CLASSROOM   MANAGEMENT 

toward  the  work,  the  value  that  may  be  derived  from  it,  and 
the  details  of  note-taking  and  summarizing  the  points  observed. 

Second  Period.    General  Observation 

The  students  are  instructed  to  note  the  four  points  concern- 
ing the  work  of  the  classroom  that  make  the  most  distinct  im- 
pression upon  them.  The  observation  should  be  followed  by 
a  discussion  in  which  each  student  reports  upon  the  points 
noted,  stating  in  each  case  the  reasons  for  believing  them  to  be 
significant.  At  the  close  of  this  discussion,  the  instructor  should 
state  the  topic  for  the  following  observation,  and  furnish  refer- 
ences that  will  enable  the  student  to  refresh  his  memory  con- 
cerning the  principles  that  are  to  be  illustrated. 

Third  Period.    General  Topic:  Attention 

(For  this  and  subsequent  observation  periods,  a  syllabus  of 
questions,  similar  to  the  following,  may  be  profitably  employed. 
This  does  not,  of  course,  preclude  subsequent  discussion.  It  will 
be  noted  that  the  questions  given  below  are  applicable  to  the  work 
of  practically  any  classroom  at  any  period.  This  makes  syste- 
matic observation  possible  without  at  the  same  time  requiring 
a  special  order  of  exercises  in  the  classroom  under  observation.) 

General    Data:     Classroom    Observed.    Grades    Represented, 
Exercises  Seen.    Date  and  Hour 

Observe  first  the  study  class.  How  would  you  characterize 
the  attention  of  the  pupils  ?  What  proportion  of  the  pupils 
are  giving  strenuous  attention?  How  do  you  judge 
whether  a  pupil  is  attentive  or  inattentive  ? 

Is  the  attention  in  general  of  the  passive,  active,  or  secondary 
passive  variety  ?    How  can  you  tell  ?    Note  any  exceptions. 


APPENDIX  A  281 

If  you  detect  any  instances  of  primary  passive  attention,  can 
you  determine  the  instinct  that  is  operative  ? 

In  cases  of  active  attention,  what  appears  to  be  the  motive  or 
incentive  ?     Give  reasons  for  your  answer. 

Note  any  lapses  in  the  attention  of  particular  pupils.  Can  you 
discover  in  each  case  the  cause  of  the  lapse  ?  What  seem 
to  be  the  most  common  distractions? 

Can  you  detect  any  rhythms  of  attention  ?  If  so ,  how  frequently 
do  they  occur  ? 

Has  the  teacher  provided  any  objective  aids  to  attention, — 
study  questions,  topics,  etc.  ?    What  is  their  eflfect  ? 

Does  the  teacher  give  directions  or  admonitions  to  the  study 
class  ?  Is  the  teacher's  attention  distracted  from  the  reci- 
tation by  pupils  in  the  study  class  ? 

If  possible,  compare  the  attention  of  pupils  who  are  writing  with 
that  of  pupils  who  are  studying  lessons  out  of  text-books. 

Observe  the  reciting  class.  What  proportion  of  the  pupils 
appear  to  be  giving  attention  to  the  lesson  ?  What  are  the 
evidences  of  this  attention  ? 

Compare  the  attention  of  the  reciting  class  with  that  of  the 
study  class.  In  which  case  is  the  attention  more  strongly 
concentrated  ?  In  which  is  it  the  longer  sustained  ?  Can 
you  give  any  reasons  for  the  differences  that  you  note  ? 

What  is  the  character  of  the  attention  in  the  reciting  class,  — 
active,  passive,  secondary  passive?  Note  any  exceptions 
to  the  general  rule. 

What  does  the  teacher  do  to  revive  attention  when  it  lags? 
Note  any  change  of  method  or  device  that  makes  for  im- 
proved attention. 

What  are  the  most  disturbing  distractions  in  the  reciting 
class? 


282  CLASSROOM  MANAGEMENT 

Fourth  Period.    General  Topic:  Habit 

Note  as  many  completely  formed  physical  habits  as  you  can 
discover  in  the  pupils. 

Do  you  discover  any  physical  habits  in  the  process  of  formation  ? 
How  can  you  tell  that  they  are  not  "full-fledged"? 

Note  habits  of  speech.  Do  the  pupils  articulate  distinctly? 
Do  they  do  this  as  a  matter  of  habit?  What  steps 
are  taken  to  improve  habits  of  articulation  and  enuncia- 
tion? 

What  grammatical  errors  can  you  discover  that  seem  to  be 
matters  of  habit?  What  correct  forms  are  evidently  still 
in  the  judgment  stage?  Does  the  teacher  attempt  to 
break  up  inadequate  habits  by  correcting  mistakes? 
What  effect  does  this  have  upon  the  pupil  corrected? 
(Note  actual  conditions.) 

Note  the  writing  of  pupils.  Are  good  form  of  letters,  correct 
spacing,  good  alignment,  and  adequate  arrangement  mat- 
ters of  habit,  or  are  they  obtained  through  judgment 
processes  ?  Are  the  results  in  writing  uniform  throughout 
the  class,  or  is  there  a  wide  variation  among  individual 
pupils  ? 

Note  the  blackboard  work.  If  inadequate  in  any  way,  can 
you  determine  just  what  details  need  further  treatment 
from  the  standpoint  of  habit-forming,  —  size  of  letters, 
uniformity  in  size  of  letters,  vertical  alignment,  horizontal 
alignment,  spacing,  etc.? 

In  the  work  in  arithmetic  and  spelling,  what  habits  are  still  in 
the  formative  stage  of  development  ?  WTiat  number  facts 
and  word-forms  seem  to  be  thoroughly  automatic?  How 
do  you  judge  ? 


APPENDIX  A  283 

Note  the  points  in  the  teacher's  technique  that  seem  to  have 
especial  reference  to  the  building  of  adequate  habits  or 
the  breaking-up  of  inadequate  habits.  Give  instances 
which  show  the  application  of  the  law  of  habit-building. 

Fifth  Period.    General  Topic:  Classroom  Routine 

Note  the  mechanics  of  the  classroom.  Note,  first,  the  general 
appearance  of  the  room.  Is  it  orderly  and  well  arranged  ? 
If  so,  try  to  discover  some  of  the  elements  that  go  to  make 
up  the  "total  l.:ipression "  that  it  makes  upon  you  —  clean 
floors,  well-arranged  tables,  a  place  for  everything  and 
everything  in  its  place,  etc. 

Do  the  pupils  rise  quickly  when  called  upon  ?  Do  they  stand 
in  the  center  of  the  aisle  without  leaning?  Do  they  al- 
ways arise  upon  the  same  side  of  the  desk  ? 

Note  the  movement  of  lines.  If  the  pupils  rise  together,  de- 
scribe the  signals  that  are  used  to  initiate  the  movement. 

Note  the  manner  in  which  pupils  pass  to  the  board.  Have 
the  necessary  movements  been  reduced  to  habit  ?  Is  there 
any  confusion  or  disorder  in  the  movement  that  might  be 
eliminated  by  forming  specific  habits? 

If  tablets,  books,  or  other  materials  are  distributed  or  collected, 
note  the  mechanism  of  the  process.  Can  you  detect  any 
point  at  which  a  bit  of  established  routine  would  save 
time  or  prevent  disorder? 

Note  the  precautions  taken  to  have  materials  for  general  use 
in  readiness  —  crayon  and  erasers  at  the  blackboard,  ink 
at  the  desks,  etc. 

Is  the  teacher  initiating  any  new  routine  ?  If  so,  describe  the 
method  employed.  How  does  it  illustrate  the  law  of 
habit-building  ? 


284  CLASSROOM   MANAGEMENT 

Sixth  Period.    General  Topic:  Discipline 

Note  the  class  not  reciting.  Are  any  of  the  pupils  engaged  in 
activities  not  connected  with  their  assigned  work?  Do 
these  activities  disturb  other  pupils?  What  seems  to  be 
the  most  serious  source  of  disturbance?  How  seriously 
does  it  affect  the  work  of  the  class  as  a  whole  ? 

Would  you  judge  the  disturbance  to  be  willful  and  intentional, 
or  accidental  and  unintentional  ?    How  can  you  tell  ? 

Do  the  pupils  who  are  not  disturbing  others  appear  to  be 
consciously  inhibiting  impulses  that  would  cause  disturb- 
ance, or  is  inhibition  a  matter  of  habit  ? 

If  pupils  are  consciously  inhibiting  impulses,  what  appears  to 
be  the  motive  or  incentive  for  such  inhibition?  What 
effect  does  conscious  inhibition  have  upon  the  regular 
work  of  the  pupils? 

What  is  the  attitude  of  other  pupils  toward  the  one  who  disturbs 
them?  Does  disorder  tend  to  "spread"  among  neigh- 
boring pupils? 

What  measures  does  the  teacher  take  to  preserve  discipline  in  the 
study  class  ?    Are  they  effective  ? 

Observe  the  reciting  class.  How  does  the  "order"  compare 
with  that  of  the  study  class  ? 

What  general  disturbances  are  caused  by  lack  of  control  on  the 
part  of  individual  pupils?  How  are  these  treated  by  the 
teacher  ? 

Do  you  note  any  instances  of  "vohtional  action"  (conflict 
between  impulses  or  between  an  impulse  and  an  idea)? 
If  so,  describe  a  t)^ical  case. 

In  what  way  does  the  teacher  encourage  right  choices  in  cases 
of  volitional  action? 


APPENDIX  A  285 

What  penalties  are  imposed  for  misdemeanors  ?  What  is  their 
effect  so  far  as  you  can  observe  ? 

Seventh  Period.    General  Topic:  Affective  Qualities 

Is  the  general  tone  of  the  classroom  pleasant,  unpleasant,  or 
indifferent?    How  do  you  determine  this? 

Can  you  ascribe  the  general  condition  to  any  specific  cause,  — 
subject-matter  studied,  method  of  presentation,  physical 
conditions  such  as  heating,  Hghting,  ventilation,  time  of 
day,  previous  exercises? 

What  is  the  effect  of  the  "tone"  of  the  room  upon  the  pupils* 
work?  Does  it  make  them  more  or  less  attentive?  Does 
it  seem  to  impede  or  accelerate  memory,  judgment,  reason- 
ing? 

Do  you  notice  particular  cases  of  any  pronounced  emotion 
among  the  pupils,  —  joy,  grief,  hope,  satisfaction,  disap- 
pointment, sympathy,  antipathy,  delight?  (Take  a  par- 
ticular case  and  describe  it  in  detail,  noting  the  cause,  the 
physiological  expressions,  and  the  effect  upon  the  pupil's 
work  and  upon  the  work  of  other  pupils.) 

Note  particularly  any  cases  of  extreme  depression  or  extreme 
buoyancy.  What  appears  to  be  the  cause?  How  does 
the  condition  express  itself,  —  inertia,  light  breathing, 
general  relaxation;  activity,  suffusion  of  blood  to  the  capil- 
laries, high  tension,  rigidity,  etc.? 

Does  the  predominant  "tone"  of  the  room  appear  to  have  any 
effect  upon  the  teacher?  Does  the  teacher  take  advan- 
tage of  any  specific  emotion  or  mood  appearing  in  a  par- 
ticular pupil  ? 

What  is  the  dominant  "tone"  of  the  teacher?    What  it  the 


286  CLASSROOM  MANAGEMENT 

effect  of  this  upon  the  instruction  ?    Upon  the  pupils  ?    Do 
you  notice  any  ** contagion"  of  mood  or  emotion? 

Eighth  Period.    General  Topic:  Hygiene 

Note  the  sitting  posture  of  the  pupils.  What  proportion  are  in 
an  adequate  sitting  position  ?  Can  you  see  any  permanent 
effects  in  individual  children  of  bad  sitting  posture,  — 
curvature  of  the  spine,  round  shoulders,  depressed  head, 
etc.  ? 

Are  the  seats  so  arranged  and  adjusted  that  all  pupils  can  as- 
sume a  correct  position?  What  proportion  of  the  pupils 
are  "hung  up"?  What  proportion  have  desks  that  are 
too  high?    Too  low? 

Can  you  by  looking  over  the  class  notice  any  pupils  who  have 
defects  of  vision  ?    How  do  you  judge  in  each  case  ? 

Is  there  any  evidence  that  any  pupils  are  defective  in  hearing  ? 
What  special  measures  does  the  teacher  take  to  aid  such 
pupils  ? 

What  proportion  of  the  pupils  appear  to  be  anaemic  ?  Compare 
the  work  of  these  pupils  with  that  of  the  others.  Are  they 
listless,  relaxed,  inattentive;  or  nervous,  high-strung,  and 
"fidgety"?  Note  their  manner  of  standing,  their  recita- 
tion work,  and  their  general  affective  tone. 

Would  you  class  any  of  the  pupils  as  "mouth  breathers"? 
If  you  find  such  cases,  compare  them  with  the  other  pupils 
as  to  ability  to  sustain  attention,  ability  to  concentrate, 
general  mental  ability,  affective  tone,  and  temper. 

Note  the  lighting  of  the  room.  Does  the  light  come  exclusively 
from  the  left  ?  If  it  comes  from  other  directions,  can  you 
note  any  bad  effects  in  the  way  of  cross-shadows,  etc.  ?  Does 


APPENDIX  A  287 

inadequate  lighting  appear  to  affect  the  "tone"  of  the 
room? 

Is  the  temperature  uniform  or  variable  ?  If  variable,  note  the 
effect  of  changes  in  temperature  upon  the  pupils  and  upon 
the  work. 

Note  any  signs  of  fatigue.  Can  you  distinguish  cases  that 
appear  to  be  real  fatigue  from  those  that  appear  to  be 
merely  ennui? 

Note  the  effect  of  slight  changes  in  methods  and  devices  upon 
apparent  fatigue.  What  does  the  teacher  do  to  provide  a 
partial  restitution  of  energy?  If  pupils  are  given  gym- 
nastic exercises,  note  the  result  on  the  work.  If  free  play 
is  permitted  or  if  "rest  periods"  are  provided,  note  the 
result. 

What  provision  has  been  made  for  ventilation  ?  Does  it  appear 
to  be  effective?  Note  any  disastrous  consequences  that 
seem  to  be  the  result  of  bad  ventilation.  If  windows  are 
opened  and  the  air  is  changed,  note  the  effect  upon  the 
pupils  and  upon  the  work. 

Ninth  Period,    General  Topic:  Technique  of  Instruction 

What  assignments  were  given  ?  Note  the  amount  of  time  spent 
in  assignments. 

What  lesson  type  is  represented  by  the  assignment?  (Induc- 
tive or  deductive  development,  preliminary  focalization 
preparatory  to  drill  lesson,  etc.) 

Describe  in  detail  the  method  of  the  assignment. 

Were  the  functions  of  the  assignment  fulfilled  ?  (Did  the  as- 
signment clear  up  relatively  insuperable  difficulties  and 
create  an  interest  in  the  new  lesson  ?) 


288  CLASSROOM   MANAGEMENT 

What  effect  did  the  assignment  have  upon  the  subsequent  study 
period  ? 

Were  devices  employed  to  make  the  seat-work  effective  ?  (Did 
the  teacher  provide  blackboard  questions,  topics,  objec- 
tive exercises,  problems  to  be  solved?)  What  were  the 
effects  of  these  devices  upon  the  study  class  ? 

What  recitations  did  you  hear?  Could  the  recitations  be 
classified  according  to  lesson  type  ?  (Development  lesson, 
review  lesson,  drill  lesson.) 

If  a  recitation  can  be  definitely  classified  as  to  tj^e,  describe 
how  the  technique  of  the  lesson  was  adapted  to  fulfill  the 
function  of  the  type  represented.  (If  a  review  lesson,  the 
function  of  organization ;  if  a  drill  lesson,  the  function  of 
habit-building;  if  an  inductive  development  lesson,  the 
function  of  establishing  a  general  principle,  rule,  or  defi- 
nition; if  a  deductive  development  lesson,  the  function 
of  anticipating  experience  or  explaining  facts.) 

Tenth  Period.    General  Topic:  Technique  of  Instruction 
Note  time  devoted  to  assignment,  and  describe  the  methods 

employed  in  assignment. 
Observe  especially  the  recitation.    Classify  according  to  lesson 

type. 
Would   you   characterize   the   recitation   as    "question-and- 

answer"  or  *' topical"?  Which  of  these  two  varieties  is 

demanded  by  the  lesson  type  represented? 
Are  all  of  the  pupils  attentive  to  all  of  the  questions  and  topics? 

What  precautions  does  the  teacher  take  to  insure  such 

attention  ? 
Are  "pumping"  questions  employed?    Are  they  justified  by 

the  lesson  type  ? 


APPENDIX  A  289 

Are  the  questions  broad  and  general  or  specific  and  pointed? 
Give  instances. 

Are  the  questions  asked  in  a  logical  sequence,  or  is  the  con- 
nection between  successive  questions  slight?  In  either 
case,  is  the  procedure  consistent  with  the  lesson  type  ?  (In 
a  drill  lesson,  for  example,  logical  sequence  of  questions  is 
not  so  important  as  in  a  development  or  a  review  lesson.) 

If  the  recitation  is  topical,  note  the  character  of  the  topics  stated. 

Are  they  broad  and  comprehensive,  or  narrowly  limited? 

Are  subsidiary  points  included  in  the  statement  of  the  topics, 

or  does  the  teacher  expect  the  pupil  to  have  these  so  well 

in  mind  that  the  statement  of  the  general  topic  suggests 

them? 

How  would  you  characterize  the  topical  recitations  of  the  pupils  ? 
(Are  they  coherent  and  well  organized,  or  loose  and  dis- 
jointed?) Do  the  pupils  discuss  the  topic  in  such  a  way 
that  the  necessary  thought-connections  are  clearly  brought 
out? 

Does  the  teacher  "prompt"  the  pupils  in  recitation?  If  so, 
describe  a  typical  case.  Is  the  reciting  pupil  ever  inter- 
rupted in  the  course  of  a  recitation  in  order  that  another 
may  proceed  with  the  discussion  ?  What  effect  does  this 
have  upon  the  attention  of  the  class  ? 

Does  the  recitation  close  with  a  summary  ?  If  so,  describe  the 
method  of  summarizing. 


APPENDIX  B 

PUPIL-GOVERNMENT  AND  THE  SCHOOL  CITY 

Many  attempts  have  been  made  within  the  past  ten  years  to 
establish  the  principle  of  self-government  in  the  school  com- 
munity. Many  of  these  plans  have  through  premature  news- 
paper exploitation  won  an  ephemeral  notoriety,  which  the  sub- 
sequent results  have  failed  to  justify.  Others  have  met  with  a 
measure  of  success  that  would  seem  to  indicate  that  there  is 
something  to  be  said  in  favor  of  pupil-government,  at  least  in  the 
upper  grades  of  the  elementary  school  and  in  the  high  school. 

Probably  the  most  notable  instance  of  a  democratic  juvenile 
community  is  the  "George  Junior  Republic,'*  of  Freeville, 
New  York.  This  "Republic"  is  peopled  mainly  by  waifs 
rescued  from  the  streets  of  New  York  City.  It  provides  a 
community  life,  partly  self-supporting  through  the  labor  of  the 
"citizens,"  and  almost  entirely  self-governing.  The  mem- 
bers of  the  community  elect  their  own  legislature,  their  police 
justices,  their  executive  officers.  The  laws  are  rigidly  enforced, 
and  penalties,  among  which  the  most  serious  is  actual  impris- 
onment at  hard  labor  and  on  a  very  plain  diet,  are  extremely 
effective.  How  much  of  the  success  of  the  George  Junior 
Republic  is  due  to  the  dominant  and  inspiring  personality  of  its 
founder,  it  would  be  difficult  to  determine,  but  that  some  credit 
must  be  given  to  the  principles  that  are  involved  is  hardly  to  be 
doubted.  It  is  not  clear,  however,  that  the  same  principles  would 
operate  with  equal  efficiency  in  all  schools.  The  "citizens"  of 
the  George  Junior  Republic  are  different  from  the  average  child 
in  that  they  have  been  accustomed  to  take  initiative  and  to 

390 


APPENDIX  B  291 

assume  responsibility  almost  from  infancy.  As  a  result,  they 
are  prematurely  developed  in  a  great  many  directions. 

The  *' School  City"  is  perhaps  the  most  successful  form  of 
self-government  in  schools  existing  under  normal  conditions 
and  catering  to  the  needs  of  normal  children.  The  establish- 
ment of  a  school  city  is  almost  invariably  successful  at  the 
outset  —  for  the  simple  reason,  of  course,  that  anything  that 
is  novel,  and  especially  anything  that  involves  self-activity, 
will  always  appeal  to  children.  When  the  novelty  begins  to 
"wear  off,"  however,  the  duties  involved  in  self-government 
become  as  irksome  as  any  other  duties,  and,  unless  upheld  by 
a  strong  head,  the  school  city  soon  lapses,  and  the  reins  of 
government  are  again  assumed  by  the  principal  and  teachers. 
Nevertheless,  while  it  lasts,  the  school  city  may  be  a  very  valu- 
able object-lesson  in  the  mechanics  of  a  democratic  govern- 
ment, and  it  is  this  feature  more  than  any  other  that  strongly 
recommends  the  general  plan. 

The  following  "Charter"  may  be  suggestive  to  those  who 
wish  to  try  the  experiment.  It  was  framed  by  Principal 
Norman  Strong,  of  the  Arsenal  School,  Hartford,  Conn., 
after  a  very  careful  study  of  the  whole  problem,  —  and,  it 
should  be  added,  with  a  full  recognition  of  the  general  Hmita- 
tions  of  pupil-government.  It  is  now  in  operation  in  the 
Arsenal  School,  and  has  thus  far  proved  to  be  successful.  The 
writer  is  indebted  to  Principal  Strong  for  permission  to  reprint 
the  charter  here. 

CHARTER  OF  THE  ARSENAL  SCHOOL  CITY,  HART- 
FORD,  CONN. 

The  committee  and  faculty  of  the  Arsenal  School,  Hartford, 
Conn.,  do  hereby  create  the  Arsenal  School  City,  granting 


292  CLASSROOM   MANAGEMENT 

the  following  charter  and  delegating  the  necessary  powers  to 
Garry  out  its  provisions. 

Article  I.    Citizens  and  Jurisdiction 

Section  I.  The  citizens  of  the  Arsenal  School  City  shall 
consist  of  the  pupils  above  Grade  III  in  the  main  building,  their 
teachers,  and  the  principal  of  the  school. 

Section  II.  Its  jurisdiction  shall  extend  to  all  parts  of  the 
school  property,  with  the  exception  of  the  classroom.  This 
jurisdiction  may  be  extended  to  the  classroom  by  a  two-thirds 
vote  of  all  the  pupils  registered  and  by  the  consent  of  the  prin- 
cipal and  the  teacher.  A  notice  of  such  action  shall  be  sent  to 
the  city  clerk. 

Article  II.    Powers  and  Duties 

Section  I.  The  Arsenal  School  City  shall  be  a  body  politic 
with  legislative  and  judicial  powers,  within  bounds,  and  in 
harmony  with,  the  Constitution  of  the  United  States  and  the 
Constitution  of  the  State  of  Connecticut. 

Section  II,  The  City  shall  have  the  right  to  nominate  and 
elect  ofl&cers  for  its  government. 

Section  III.  It  shall  be  the  duty  of  its  citizens  and  its  offi- 
cials to  maintain  such  order  as  is  necessary  for  the  best  interests 
of  school  life;  to  become  thoroughly  familiar  with  their  city 
charter;  to  secure  justice  to  every  citizen;  and  to  enforce  as 
laws,  all  ordinances  that  shall  be  made  by  its  legislative  body, 
and  such  rules  and  regulations  as  have  been  established  in  the 
school  either  through  custom  or  by  the  direction  of  the  principal. 

Section  IV.  It  shall  be  the  special  duty  of  the  city  officials 
to  inform  themselves  as  to  the  duties  of  their  office  by  reading, 
and  by  questioning  those  most  able  to  give  them  information. 


APPENDIX   B  393 

Article  III.    Legislative  Department 

Section  I.  The  legislative  body  shall  consist  of  the  citizens 
of  the  city. 

Section  II.  A  bill  to  become  a  law  must  pass  through  the 
following  stages :  — 

1.  It  shall  be  presented  by  any  citizen  to  the  mayor  and 
principal,  who  shall,  if  they  think  it  is  a  proper  bill  to  come 
before  the  voters  of  the  city,  direct  the  city  clerk  to  post  it. 

2.  It  shall  be  posted  for  five  school  days. 

3.  On  the  school  day  following  the  last  day  that  the  bill  is 
posted,  the  citizens,  as  they  pass  out  to  recess,  shall  cast  their 
ballots  in  their  respective  rooms.  They  shall  vote  *'yes"  if 
they  favor  the  bill,  and  "no"  if  they  oppose  it. 

4.  During  the  recess  of  the  day  aforesaid,  the  ballots  shall  be 
counted  and  a  certified  record  of  the  result  be  sent  to  the  city 
clerk.  Two  counters  and  two  inspectors  shall  be  previously 
chosen. 

5.  The  city  clerk,  with  the  mayor  and  the  judge  of  the  city 
court  as  inspectors,  shall  summarize  the  ballots. 

6.  If  the  bill  shall  receive  a  majority  of  all  the  votes  cast  and 
the  signatures  of  the  mayor  and  principal,  it  shall  become  a 
city  ordinance. 

Article  IV.    The  Legislative  Department 

Section  I.  The  executive  officers  shall  be  a  mayor,  a  chief- 
of -police,  and  a  city  clerk,  elected  for  one  school  term. 

Section  II.  Duties  of  the  Mayor.  Clause  i.  The  mayor  shall 
be  the  chief  executive  officer  and,  in  case  of  his  temporary  dis- 
ability, absence,  or  removal,  his  duties  shall  devolve  upon  the 
following  officers  in  the  order  given :  chief-of -police,  town  clerk. 


294  CLASSROOM   MANAGEMENT 

Clause  2.  He  shall  appoint  with  the  consent  and  advice  of 
the  principal  and  the  chief-of-police,  such  police  officers  as  he 
thinks  necessary  for  the  maintenance  of  order. 

Clause  3.  Police  officers  having  control  of  corridors,  cloak 
rooms,  and  basements  shall  be  appointed  upon  the  advice  of 
the  classes  using  said  parts  of  the  building.  (See  Art.  VI, 
Sect.  VI.) 

Clause  4.  The  mayor  shall  communicate  during  the  first 
week  of  the  term  at  a  public  meeting  or  meetings  the  condition 
of  the  city  and  make  recommendations  for  its  improvement. 

Section  III.  Duties  oj  the  Chiej-of-Police.  Clause  i.  The 
chief-of-police  shall  have  general  charge  of  the  police  force. 

Clause  2.  It  shall  be  the  duty  of  the  chief-of-police  to  bring 
all  persons  before  the  City  Court  and  the  Court  of  Appeab  on 
the  order  of  the  prosecuting  attorney. 

Section  IV.  Duties  oj  the  City  Clerk.  Clause  i.  The  city 
clerk  shall  be  the  custodian  of  all  city  property,  keep  the  records 
of  the  city  and  post  the  same.  These  records  shall  include  the 
following:  (i)  results  of  all  elections;  (2)  the  ballot  on  all 
bills ;  (3)  all  city  ordinances ;  (4)  a  complete  record  of  nomi- 
nating conventions;  (5)  a  record  of  all  classrooms  that  pass 
under  the  jurisdiction  of  the  city  government. 

Clause  2.  He  shall  have  power  to  administer  the  oath  of  office 
to  the  city  officials. 

Clause  3.  He  shall  appoint,  with  the  advice  and  consent  of 
the  mayor  and  principal,  an  assistant  city  clerk. 

Article  V.    The  Judicial  Department 

Section  I.  The   judicial   department   shall   consist   of   the 
City  Court  and  the  Court  of  Appeals. 
Section  II.  The  City  Court.  Clause  i.  The  City  Court  shall 


APPENDIX  B  295 

have  original  jurisdiction  over  all  cases  of  violation  of  the  laws 
of  the  city. 

Clause  2.  The  officials  of  the  City  Court  shall  be  a  judge  and 
a  prosecuting  attorney  elected  by  the  city,  and  a  clerk  of  the 
court,  appointed  by  the  judge,  with  the  advice  and  consent  of 
the  mayor  and  principal. 

Clause  3.  It  shall  be  the  duty  of  the  judge  to  preside  at  all 
sessions  of  the  City  Court,  to  discharge  all  persons  found  not 
guilty,  and  to  sentence  those  found  guilty.  To  become  opera- 
tive, a  sentence  must  receive  the  written  approval  of  the  prin- 
cipal, or  a  teacher  authorized  by  him. 

Clause  4.  The  pupil  associate  judge  of  the  Court  of  Appeals 
shall  preside  over  the  City  Court  during  the  temporary  ab- 
sence or  disability  of  the  judge  of  the  City  Court. 

Clause  5.  Any  person  aggrieved  by  the  judgment  of  the  City 
Court  shall  have  the  right  of  appeal  to  the  higher  court. 

Clause  6.  The  jurisdiction  of  the  City  Court  as  to  penalties 
may  be  limited  by  the  ordinances  of  the  legislative  department 
and  in  all  cases  where  no  penalty  is  prescribed  by  ordinance, 
the  court  shall  impose  such  penalty  as  it  deems  just  and  equi- 
table, subject  to  the  right  of  appeal  as  aforesaid. 

Clause  7.  It  shall  be  the  duty  of  the  prosecuting  attorney  to 
prosecute  before  the  City  Court  (and  the  higher  court  when 
an  appeal  is  made)  all  violations  of  the  laws  of  the  city. 

Clause  8.  It  shall  be  the  duty  of  the  clerk  of  the  City  Court 
to  keep  all  records  of  persons  brought  before  the  court  as 
follows :  the  defendant's  name,  his  offense,  by  whom  arrested, 
defendant's  plea,  the  defendant's  attorney,  the  witnesses  for 
and  against,  the  decision  and  penalty  imposed  by  the  court 
and  the  appeal.  (He  shall  also  be  clerk  of  the  Court  of  Appeals 
and  record  its  decisions.) 


296  CLASSROOM   MANAGEMENT 

Clause  9.  The  principal  or  a  teacher  authorized  by  him  shall 
be  present  as  an  adviser  at  each  session  of  the  City  Court. 

Section  III.  The  Court  of  Appeals.  Clause  i.  The  Court  of 
Appeals  shall  consist  of  the  chief  justice,  who  shall  be  the  prin- 
cipal, and  two  associate  justices,  a  teacher,  and  a  pupil  elected 
by  the  city  for  one  school  term. 

Clause  2.  The  Court  of  Appeals  shall  have  appellate  and 
final  jurisdiction  on  all  cases  brought  to  it  on  appeal  from  the 
City  Court,  and  original  jurisdiction  over  all  applications  to  it 
for  the  removal  from  office  of  any  of  the  officials  of  the  city. 

Clause  3.  The  prosecuting  attorney,  clerk  of  the  City  Court, 
and  chief -of-police  shall  also  be  officials  of  the  Court  of  Appeals 
when  it  is  in  session.     (See  Art.  V,  Sect.  Ill,  Clauses  7,  8,  and 

9-) 

Clause  4.  The  sessions  of  the  Court  of  Appeals  shall  be  sub- 
ject to  the  call  of  the  chief  justice. 

Article  VI.    The  Nomination  and  Election  of  Officers 

Section  I.  The  Delegates.  Just  prior  to  dismissal  on  the 
afternoon  of  the  Monday  of  the  last  full  week  of  school  in  each 
school  term,  each  room  of  the  Arsenal  School  City  shall  elect 
a  boy  and  a  girl  as  delegates  to  a  nominating  convention  and 
send  a  certified  list  of  the  same  to  the  city  clerk. 

Section  II.  The  Convention.  Clause  i.  On  the  following 
Tuesday  at  3.30,  these  delegates  shall  meet  in  convention  and 
shall  nominate  two  candidates  for  each  of  the  following  officers 
in  the  order  given:  mayor,  chief -of-police,  judge  of  the  City 
Court,  prosecuting  attorney,  a  teacher  and  pupil  as  associate 
justices  of  the  Court  of  Appeals,  and  a  city  clerk. 

Clause  2.  The  city  clerk  shall  call  the  convention  to  order, 
and  a  chairman  shall  be  elected.    The  chairman  shall  direct 


APPENDIX  B  297 

the  city  clerk  to  call  the  roll  of  the  delegates  from  his  certified 
lists.  The  convention  shall  then  proceed  to  nominate  candi- 
dates. 

Clause  3.  The  principal  or  a  teacher  authorized  by  him  shall 
be  present  as  an  adviser  during  the  session  of  the  convention. 

Section  III.  The  Election.  Clause  i.  Just  prior  to  the  dis- 
missal on  the  afternoon  of  the  Thursday  of  the  last  full  week 
of  each  school  term,  ballots  shall  be  cast  in  each  room  for  the 
candidates,  and  a  certified  record  of  the  result  sent  to  the  city 
clerk.  Previous  to  the  election,  two  counters  and  two  inspec- 
tors of  election  shall  be  chosen. 

Clause  2.  The  city  clerk  shall  summarize  the  ballots,  with 
the  mayor  and  judge  of  the  City  Court  as  inspectors. 

Clause  3.  The  officials  receiving  a  majority  of  all  votes  cast 
shall  be  elected. 

Section  IV.  Term  of  Office.  Clause  i.  The  term  of  office 
of  all  city  officials  shall  be  for  one  school  term  and  until  their 
successors  are  installed  unless  otherwise  provided  for. 

Clause  2.  The  installation  of  officers  shall  take  place  at  such 
time  and  place  as  the  principal  may  arrange. 

Section  V.  Vacancies  Filled.  All  vacancies  in  office,  unless 
otherwise  provided  for,  shall  be  filled  by  the  mayor  with  the 
advice  and  consent  of  the  principal. 

Section  VI.  The  First  Election.  The  first  election  shall  take 
place  at  the  call  of  the  principal. 

Section  VII.  Police  Officers.  Clause  i.  Each  room  shall 
choose  on  the  last  day  of  each  calendar  month  three  boys  and 
three  girls,  and  shall  send  a  list  of  the  same  to  the  mayor. 
(See  Art.  IV,  Sect.  II.) 

Clause  2.  The  term  of  office  of  a  police  officer  shall  be  for 
one  calendar  month  and  until  his  successor  is  installed. 


298  CLASSROOM   MANAGEMENT 

Clause  3.  The  first  and  most  important  duty  of  a  police 
officer  shall  be  to  prevent  a  violation  of  the  laws. 

Clause  4.  A  police  officer  shall  make  an  arrest  by  serving 
upon  an  offender  the  following  warrant :  — 

Date 19.... 

To 

You  are  hereby  accused  of  violating  a  law  of  the  Arsenal 
School  City  and  are  summoned  to  appear  before  the  next  ses- 
sion of  the  City  Court. 

Offense 

Signed Police  Officer 

Clause  5.  A  duplicate  of  the  above  shall  be  sent  by  the 
police  officer  to  the  prosecuting  attorney  at  the  time  of  the  arrest. 

Clause  6.  Before  assuming  the  duties  of  office,  officials  shall 
take  the  following  oath :  — 

"You  do  solemnly  promise  that  you  will  perform  with  pa- 
tience and  courtesy  the  duties  of  the  office  of 

and  will,  to  the  best  of  your  ability,  preserve,  protect,  and  defend 
the  interests  of  the  Arsenal  School  City." 

Article  VII.    Amendments 

Amendments  to  this  charter  shall  be  made  in  the  same  way 

that  city  ordinances  are  enacted,  with  the  exception  that  they 

shall  receive  a  three-fourths  vote  of  all  ballots  cast.     (See 

Art.  III.) 

Article  VIII 

This  charter  shall  become  operative  by  the  three-fourths 
vote  of  the  city,  and  shall  become  inoperative  at  the  close  of  any 
term  by  a  majority  vote  of  the  teachers  having  classrooms  in 
the  Arsenal  School  City. 


APPENDIX  C 

THE  "SPRINGFIELD   QUESTIONS"  IN  ARITHMETIC 

In  1905  a  set  of  examination  papers  written  by  ninth  grade 
pupils  in  1846  was  found  in  one  of  the  grammar  school  build- 
ings of  Springfield,  Mass.  The  questions  were  given  to  an 
eighth  grade  class  in  the  same  school  for  the  purpose  of  com- 
paring the  results  in  arithmetic  under  the  older  methods  of 
teaching  with  the  results  obtained  under  contemporary  methods. 
In  several  other  schools  throughout  the  country  the  same  ques- 
tions have  been  given,  and  it  is  generally  agreed  that  they  form 
a  very  fair  test  of  what  pupils  should  know  of  arithmetical  proc- 
esses at  the  close  of  the  elementary  course.  They  are  ac- 
cordingly reprinted  below,  together  with  the  standings  attained 
by  the  earlier  class  and  by  present-day  classes :  — 

"i.  Add  together  the  following  numbers:  Three  thousand 
and  nine,  twenty-nine,  one,  three  hundred  and  one,  sixty-one, 
sixteen,  seven  hundred  and  two,  nine  thousand,  nineteen  and 
a  half,  one  and  a  half. 

"2.  Multiply  10,008  by  8009. 

"3.  In  a  town  five  miles  wide  and  six  miles  long,  how  many 
acres  ? 

"4.  How  many  steps  of  two  and  a  half  feet  each  will  a  person 
take  in  walking  one  mile  ? 

"5.  What  is  one  third  of  175J? 

"6.  A  boy  bought  three  dozen  of  oranges  for  374  cents,  and 
sold  them  for  i^  cents  apiece;  what  would  he  have  gained  if 
he  had  sold  them  for  2^  cents  apiece? 

299 


300  CLASSROOM  MANAGEMENT 

"7.  There  is  a  certain  number,  one  third  of  which  exceeds 
one  fourth  of  it  by  two;  what  is  the  number? 

"8.  What  is  the  simple  interest  of  $1200  for  12  years,  11 
months,  and  29  days,  at  six  per  cent?" 

The  class  of  eighty-five  pupils  who  underwent  this  examina- 
tion in  1846  averaged  29.4  per  cent.  In  1905,  the  eighth  grade 
Springfield  class  averaged  65.5  per  cent,  and  a  class  at  Frank- 
fort, Ind.,  62.2  per  cent 


APPENDIX   D 

PUPILS'  WRITTEN  WORK  AS  AN  INDEX  OF  GROWTH 

The  following  plates  are  reproductions  (reduced  in  size)  of 
papers  produced  by  pupils  in  the  elementary  grades.  They 
are  inserted  here  as  possibly  suggestive  to  the  beginning  teacher 
of  the  quality  of  written  work  that  may  be  expected  from  pupils 
in  the  grades  indicated. 

Plate  I  shows  the  improvement  made  in  form  (arrangement, 
alignment,  neatness,  and  good  writing)  in  a  period  of  four 
months.  Similar  results  were  secured  from  the  other  mem- 
bers of  the  class.     (Grade  III  "B.") 

Plate  II  and  Plate  III  also  show  the  growth  that  may  be 
made  within  comparatively  brief  periods  of  time.  The  first 
paper  represented  in  Plate  II  is  typical  of  the  rather  careless 
work  often  accepted  as  the  best  that  a  pupil  can  do.  The 
second  paper,  written  two  months  afterward,  shows  a  notice- 
able improvement  in  matters  of  form.  The  first  paper  of 
Plate  III  reveals  a  deterioration  in  form,  due  to  the  intro- 
duction of  a  new  process  (the  "long"  method  of  division). 
The  second  paper,  produced  three  weeks  later,  shows  recovery 
from  the  deterioration,  and  also  a  measurable  improvement 
over  the  second  paper  of  Plate  II. 

Plates  IV-XIII  represent  types  of  written  work  for  the 
various  grades.  They  are  reproduced  from  papers  selected 
from  complete  "sets"  comprising  the  work  of  entire  classes. 
In  every  case,  the  paper  is  a  "first  draft,"  that  is,  there  has 

301 


302  CLASSROOM    MANAGEMENT 

been  no  correction  or  rewriting.  The  object  is  to  show,  not 
the  most  "finished"  results,  but  the  results  that  can  be  ex- 
pected from  the  pupils,  day  in  and  day  out,  as  a  matter  of 
habit.  In  every  case,  the  paper  reproduced  is  fairly  typical 
of  the  set  from  which  it  is  taken.  The  papers  represent  schools 
in  all  parts  of  the  United  States  —  the  East,  the  Middle  West, 
the  South,  and  the  Far  West.  The  presence  of  certain  con- 
tent in  any  paper  does  not,  of  course,  imply  that  the  writer 
necessarily  indorses  such  content  for  the  grade  in  question. 
The  suggestions  printed  under  the  cuts  indicate  possible  lines 
of  improvement. 


H^I     lb     ^C-  2,2  i9*i     55-> 
/  6  dU/Yv^j^l  dbwxn.. 


'H% 

/^c?!? 

'/o? 

^o:?it 

/^ 

+H^3J^ 

+s:.o/o_ 

iO,Sb9 

1^3  ^ 

Plate  I.  — Showing  Growth  in  Form  Habits  from  September  to  January. 
(Grade  III  "  B.")  (Note  particularly  the  improvement  in  form  of  figures, 
and  in  vertical  and  horizontal  alignment.) 


303 


•20  V-  a.075       3(>t)^ 


f«o 


tana.d.  it 67 


J3JLI  t  7Ai  ^1 1  J 

SUzi^JL.    ^nSlASL.     5"U£iiL5L 

I  uour  nruxnrvji  rum/i^  l/n  \x  dcup? 
it 

Plate  II.  —  Showing  Growth  in  Form  Habits  from  November  to  Januaiy. 
(Grade  III  "  B.") 


it&LxnJi 


1 


H13X  7»f?-5  t,.<}  31 

a<?t3         a7Ht  ¥154 


8-H<?  32-75a. 

33qb  tULHJLHi-     5-13  7, TO 

-t-.^rt'?'^  I  Oy  6  7  75  0 

5V33b 

Plate  ill.  —  Showing  (a)  Deterioration  in  Form  on  Introduction  of  New  Process; 
(*)  Recovery  from  Deterioration.    (Grade  III  *'  B.") 
X  30$ 


Plate  IV.  —Type  of  Work  from  First  Grade  Pupils  just  Learning  to  Write. 


306 


MM 


Plate  V.  —  A  Type  of  First  Grade  Work.    (Rather  crowded  and  some 
figures  not  well-formed.) 


307 


a-a 


4^*3 

a.  ^  \  1  3SL 

«» C)  -1  Ll/vvb.  3  b  b  CLo-ub. 

Plate  VI.  —An  Average  Paper  selected  from  all  "  B  "  Number  Set.     (Note 
a  "backhand"  tendency  that  needs  correction.) 


308 


tjtcrui/n,  //ace/  JcA,<rcca^/ijt^^izyA^t/zru>icO^^A/c^^ 
.JkicLh^  yOtLcAu  oy>U>0  .A^xjt  ^/U/nv.ci<Tuyn/>d£b^u}yy-ia^ 

PLATE  VII.  —  A  •'  Story  "  Paper  from  Grade  III  "  A."     (More  uniform  slant 
and  wider  spacing  would  improve  the  paper.) 


» 


^ynJur    -tJ^XJL  CuJJ  o^TlVi^U.^^ 
It^TxlykAJ  irnycnc<n^t<^ytyy^ 

Plate  VIII.  —  An  Average  Fourth  Grade  Paper  showing  "  Medium  Slant" 
Penmanship.     (Margin  needs  correction.) 


310 


1i  CUutl/mU^, 
U 

1  ^-  Oa;t  of  I  ^  of.  wthJL., 

Plate  IX.  —  Arithmetic  Paper  from  Grade  V  "  B."    (Lack  of  uniformity  in 
height  of  letters  and  figures  is  the  chief  defect.) 

3" 


r4 


1^  i!rtwuu»V>)  T^^cvi/JvuUWt; 

Hci^jLU,  vXowvtr  ^ovwijl va^AAXj^  <wut  ^iu(1a/u.  cxaaA  "tUx 

■U/OAA/'tUjt  yiouii^  yaJ^iUi  <^^ 

VnJLoJl  ^  oi/YUjL  kxu-K^  oL  CXnjcL  vtLojkX^a.  Ji^^    cuwcL 
crCtk,  t5xoX  tJhju^.  \vxnAJlcL  vurt  IxTuxK.'tkft. 

Plate  X.  —A  ••  Story  "  Paper  from  Grade  V  "  A."    (Lines  too  close  together ; 
spaces  should  be  wider  between  words.) 


3«« 


5.  "VQaxi^wAXa. -*  3  «^  oL .  i  ^ .  5  «A.  .to- wv  . 

H  JvcL  .=  4  X  H  tfdL.*  5,a  t|  cL. 

Plate  XI.  —An  Arithmetic  Paper  from  Grade  VI  "  A."    (Note  vertical 
alignment.) 


313 


Plate  XII.  —  An  Average  Paper  selected  from  an  Elementary  Science  Set 
(Grade  VII  "A  ") .  (The  "  sketch  "  inserted  by  the  pupil  may  be  profitably 
compared  with  the  elaborate  decorations  often  seen  on  exhibited  papers.) 


314 


;0'jLri_&iJL  Stoiirt-rvlSti.  f(jT.faA4»*<l>V»». ,'  ^jTr^U^. 


Plate  XIII.  —  An  Arithmetic  Paper  from  Grade  VIII  "  B."     (What  would  other- 
wise be  good  form  is  impaired  by  crowding  on  a  small  sheet  of  paper.) 


INDEX 


(Names  of  authorities  cited  are  printed  in  small  capitals.    References  given  at  the  end 
of  the  chapters  are  not  repeated  in  the  index.) 


Absence,   6,    71    ff.;    as   influencing 

standing,  79. 
Accuracy,  tests  for,  in  arithmetic,  236  f . 
Abler,  F.,  181. 

Adulation  as  an  incentive,  180  S. 
Affective  qualities,  285  f. 
Aim  of  education,  7  f.,  226  f. 
Akron,  Ohio,  course  of  study  cited,  63. 
Alternation  of  studies,  61 ;  in  Batavia 

system,  219  ff. 
Angell,  J.  R.,  63. 
Anti-machine  theory  of  government, 

30  ff. 
Arithmetic,  5  f.,  23  ».,  148  ff.,  197, 

299;   testing  results  in,  236  ff. 
Art  of  teaching,  273. 
Assignment,    functions    of,    192    ff.; 

helping  pupils  in,  193  f. 
Association,   of  cause  and  effect   in 

punishment,    109;    of   theory   and 

practice,  276. 
Attendance,  6,  71  ff.;    delinquencies 

in,  72  ff. 
Attention,  137  ff.,  188,  280  f.;  active, 

140  ff.,  158  ff.;    function  of,  148; 

and  habit,  144;  passive,  140, 147  ff.; 

in  recitation,  212;    and  reasoning, 

160;    rhythms  of,  191;    secondary 

passive,  143  ff. 
Authority,  in  securing  order,  93  ff.; 

overemphasis  of,  95;    and  justice, 

98;  and  scholarship,  97. 

Backward  pupils,  treatment  of,  218. 
Baldwin,  J.,  123. 
Baldwin,  W.  A.,  53. 
Ball-playing,  regulation  of,  87. 
Batavia  system,  214  ff.;   applicability 
of,  219  ff.;  dangers  of,  217  f.;  his- 


tory of,  216;    program  in,  220  f.; 

virtues  of,  216  f. 
Bay  City,  rules  cited,  129. 
Bell-Lancaster  system,  217. 
Biology,  of  attention,  139  ff. 
Blackboard,  routine  in  use  of,  39  f.; 

neatness  of,  48  f.;   235. 
Book  vs.  oral  instruction,  191  f.,  205. 
bothwell,  j.  l.,  122. 

Carrington,  W.  T.,  193. 

Chadwick,  E.,  60. 

Chamberlain,  A.  F.,  126. 

Change,  instinct  of,  147  ff. 

Chester,  Pa.,  rules  cited,  127,  129. 

Chubb,  P.,  174,  194,  204. 

Cigarette  smoking,  control  of,  87  f. 

Civic  duties  of  teacher,  257. 

Civic  virtue,  instruction  in,  258. 

Civilization,  changes  due  to,  7,  no. 

Clark,  S.  H.,  194. 

Class  as  technical  term,  i. 

Classes,  number  of,  in  relation  to  pro- 
gram, 57  ff. 

Classification  in  rural  schools,  27. 

Class-individual  instruction,  system 
of,  214  ff. 

Class  instruction,  system  of,  i  f.;  as 
source  of  waste,  11;  technique  of, 
188  ff. ;  advantages  and  dangers  of, 
214. 

Cleanliness,  personal,  88  f. 

Closets,  inspection  of,  91. 

Commendation  as  an  incentive,  180  ff. 

Competition  in  securing  attendance, 
76  f. 

Compulsory  attendance,  enforcement 
of,  73  ff. 

Construction,  instinct  of,  155  f. 


317 


3i8 


INDEX 


Contagious  diseases,  89. 

Contrasts,  instinctive  liking  for,  154  f. 

Cook,  W.  G.,  272. 

cornman,  o.  p.,  238. 

Corporal  punishment,  114  S.;  by 
whom  administered,  128  f. ;  dangers 
of,  1155.;  frequency  of,  116;  as  an 
incentive  to  study,  164  ff.;  in  pres- 
ence of  class,  130;  limitations  of, 
115  ff. ;  opinions  upon,  123  ff. ; 
period  when  most  effective,  130  f.; 
reaction  against,  117  ff. ;  regula- 
tion of,  126  ff.;  witnesses  for,  129; 
as  penalty  for  tardiness,  78. 

Courage  as  factor  in  discipline,  93. 

Course  of  power,  57. 

Craft  spirit  in  teaching,  100;  ideals 
of,  267  ff. 

Curiosity,  instinct  of,  152  ff.,  202  f. 

Daily  program,  50  ff.;  under  Bata- 
via  system,  220  f. 

Day  session,  length  of,  51  f. 

Deductive  development  lesson,  203  f. 

De  Garmo,  C,  246. 

DeUnquencies,  necessary,  72. 

Delinquency  in  attendance,  71  ff. 

Desks,  adjustable,  82;  arrangement 
of  materials  in,  42  f. 

Devices,  158  ff. 

Dewey,  J.,  165. 

Dictionary,  use  of,  193  f. 

Diminishing  returns,  law  of,  in  educa- 
tion, 69. 

Discipline,  92  ff.,  284  f. 

Distributing  wraps  and  materials, 
40  ff. 

DuTTON,  S.  T.,  123,  170,  174,  184. 

Education,  ultimate  aim  of,  7  ff . ;  as  a 
creative  art,  272  f.;  and  civiliza- 
tion, 7  f.,  180. 

Emotions,  as  determining  attention, 
141;  as  compUcating  mental  pro- 
cesses, 9. 

Emulation,  instinct  of,  158  f.,  169  ff.; 
objections  to  use  of,  178  ff. 

Ends,  doctrine  of,  139  ff.;  immediate, 
140;  remote,  141  ff.,  159  f.,  168 
(and  ideals),  185. 

Environment,  influence  of,  4. 


Ethics  of  Schoolcraft,  267  ff. 

Examinations,  243  ff.;  in  Batavia 
system,  218;   exemption  from,  171. 

Excuses,  for  poor  teaching,  269  f.; 
for  absence  and  tardiness,  73  ff. 

Exemptions,  as  incentives  to  attend- 
ance, 76;  as  incentives  to  study, 
171  f. 

Exercise  in  open  air,  52,  53  ».,  86  f. 

Exercises,  general,  58  f. 

Exhibition  of  school  work,  173  f.,  184, 
234  ». 

Expulsions,  134. 

Factory,  analogy  of  school  to,  4  f , 

Fair  play,  respect  of  children  for,  98. 

Fatigue,  general  factors  of  in  program- 
making,  56;  hygiene  of,  86  f.;  re- 
cuperation from,  58;  relation  to 
subject-matter,  56. 

Fear,  as  an  incentive,  162  ff.;  instinct 
of,  159. 

Fire  drills,  37  f. 

First  day  of  school,  20  ff. 

Formal  steps,  197  ff. 

Form  vs.  content,  54  ff. 

Fort  Worth,  Tex.,  rules  cited,  128. 

Fundamental  vs.  accessory,  in  school 
subjects,  53  f.,  273. 

Gambling,  87. 

Games,    permitted    and    prohibited, 

87  f. 
Geography,  203,  206,  207. 
George  Junior  Republic,  291. 
Gesell,  a.  L.,  47. 
GiDDiNGS,  F.  H.,  17. 
Good  nature,  as  factor  in  discipline, 

98  f. 
Government,  92  ff.;  by  pupil,  290  ff. 
Grade,  as  technical  term,  2. 
Graded  school  program,  60  ff. 
Grades,  as  incentives,  143,  174,  177  ff. 
Grammar,  23  w.,  197. 
Group,  like  response  of,   17  f.;    as 

modifying  discipUne,  112. 
Gymnastics,  and  fatigue,  58. 

Habit,  Z4  ff.,  282  f.;  and  attention, 
144;  and  discipline,  95;  and  ideals, 
186;    and  initiative,  33,  34;    and 


INDEX 


319 


judgment,  32,  34;  and  moral 
character,  228  f. 

Habit-building,  law  of,  15  f.;  re- 
sults in,  326;  testing,  229  ff.;  and 
attention,  233;    and  spelling,  242. 

Habits,  specific  nature  of,  43  f.; 
hygienic,  80  ff. ;  of  sitting,  82 ;  of 
regular  attendance,  71  ff.;  of  pos- 
ture, 81  ff.;  in  individual  life,  15; 
in  education,  11. 

Hall,  F.  H.,  194. 

Hall,  G.  S.,  125,  151,  245. 

Hart,  H.  M.,  76. 

History,  202,  203. 

HoAJR,  G.  E.,  271. 

Holidays,  as  incentives,  171. 

Hughes,  J.  L.,  122. 

Hygiene,  of  eyesight,  85  f.;  of  class- 
room, 81  ff.,  286  f. 

Hygienic  duties  of  teacher,  256. 

Ideals,  as  incentives,  184  ff.;  of  duty, 
103:  psychology  of,  185  ff.;  im- 
pression of,  227  f. 

Idea  vs.  impulse,  158. 

Illinois  course  of  study,  cited,  193,  235. 

Immunities,  as  incentives  to  attend- 
ance, 76;  as  incentives  to  study, 
171. 

Impartiality  in  administering  dis- 
cipUne,  98. 

Incentives,  159  ff.;  classification  of, 
169;  highvj. low,  i68f.;  naturals, 
artificial,  161  ».;  positive,  161  f,, 
168 ff.;  negative,  161  f.,  163 ff.;  and 
reasoning,  160 ;  and  association,  164. 

Incidental  learning,  150. 

Individual  instruction,  i  f.,  213, 
214  ff.;  punishment  in.  Ill ;  tech- 
nique of,  222  f. 

Individuality  of  pupil,  32,  38. 

Inductive  development  lesson,  197  ff. 

Infancy,  significance  of,  7,  iii. 

Inhibition,  an  acquired  art,  106;  ne- 
cessity of,  92. 

Initiative  vs.  habit,  32,  34. 

Ink,  use  of,  in  school,  44,  85  f . 

Inspiration  in  education,  35. 

Instinct,  14  f-;  inadequacy  of,  no; 
and  active  attention,  158;  and  in- 
hibition,  106;    and  interest,   168; 


and  incentives,  168  ff.;    as  deter- 
mining education,  139  f. 

Instincts,  social,  174,  180  ff.;  of 
change,  147  ff.;  of  construction, 
155  f.;  of  curiosity,  202  f.;  of 
emulation,  158  f.;  of  fear,  159;  of 
play,  150  ff.;  of  self-preservation, 
159;   in  corporal  punishment,  118, 

Instruction,  class -individual,  214  ff 
methods  of,  189  ff.;    technique  of, 
188  ff.,  287  ff.;   text-book,  189  ff. 
testing  efficiency  of,  242  ff. 

Interest,  102  f.,  139  ff.,  143  ff.;  and 
assignment,  197;  and  secondary 
passive  attention,  145. 

Interests,  primitive  vs.  acquired,  168. 

Jacksonville,  Fla.,  rules  cited,  128. 
Journals,  educational,  254. 
Justice,  in  corporal  punishment,  117; 
as  factor  in  discipline,  98. 

Keith,  J.  A.  H.,  103,  124. 
Kellogg,  A.  M.,  123. 
Kennedy,  J.,  216,  222. 
KiRKPATRiCK,  E.  A.,  234. 
Knowledge,  results  in,  226;    testing, 

242  ff.;  and  discipline,  97  f. 
Kotelmann,  L.,  81,  85. 

La  Crosse,  Wis.,  rules  cited,  127, 

Lancaster-Bell  system,  217. 

Landon,  J.,  2,  123,  215. 

La  Salle,  Father,  2. 

Latham,  H.,  244. 

Law  of  habit-building,  15  ff. 

Laws  of  attention,  139  ff. 

Leaving  the  room,  45  f. 

Lecture-method,  in  assignment,  105. 

Leniency  in  teaching,  19. 

Lessons,  study,  206  ff.;  recitation, 
210  ff.;    development,   197  ff. 

Like-response  in  group  action,  17. 

Lines,  passing  of,  22,  37  f. 

Literature,  teaching  of,  204,  208;  edu- 
cational, 255. 

Los  Angeles,  course  of  study  cited,  193. 

Machine  theory  of  organization,  30  ff. 
Manual  training,  and  discipline,  104; 
in  program,  67  ». 


320 


INDEX 


Marble  playing,  87. 
Marking  .examination  papers,  248. 
Marks  as  incentives,  174  S.,  177. 
Mechanics  of  classroom,  231  ff. 
Metiiod,  general,  276;   special,  276. 
Methods,  of  insfaoiction,  188  ff.;    of 

testing  results,  225  ff. 
Mind,  function  of,  15. 
Monitorial  work  as  an.  incentive,  172. 
Monitors  for  distributing  materials,  28. 
Montana,  course  of  study  cited,  235. 
MooNEY,  W.  B.,  279. 
Moral    character,    and    habits,    228; 

as  aim  of  education,  226  ff. 
Moral  health,  90  f. 

Nagging,  166. 

Natural  punishments,   106  ff. 

Neatness,  personal,  88;  of  classroom, 
43  ff. ;  of  written  work,  47  f. 

Needs,  primitive,  165;  as  determin- 
ing education,  139. 

New  York,  state  course  of  study  dted, 
68. 

Normal  school,  observation  in,  275  ff. ; 
policy  of,  276  n. 

Objective  teaching,  diflBculty  of,  277. 
Observation,  course  in,  275  ff.;  prin- 
ciples of,  277  f.;  syllabi  for,  279  ff. 
Oral  vs.  book  instruction,  191  f.,  205. 
Oral  vs.  written  work,  173  f. 
Order,  92  ff.,  284  f. 
Organization,  economy  of,  13  ff. 
O'Shea,  M.  v.,  8,  57,  58,  246,  275. 
Outlines,  topical,  209  f. 

Paper  for  school  use,  85. 
Parents,  cooperation  of,  133,  178. 
Passing,  formality  of,  175  f. 
Payne,  B.  R.,  54. 
Payne,  W.  M.,  272. 
Pencils  for  school  use,  85. 
Periods,  standard  length  of,  60. 
Persistence  as   factor  in   discipline, 

95  f.  .         ^ 

Play,  supervision  of,  86  f . ;  instinct  of, 

150  ff. 
Pleasure-pain  theory,  106. 
Portiand,  Ore.,  course  of  study  cited, 

193. 


Posture,  habits  of,  81  ff.;  in  sitting; 
81  ff.;  in  standing,  84  f.;  in  writ- 
ing, 83  f . 

Practice  vs.  theory,  275  ff. 

Praise  as  an  incentive,  180  ff. 

Preparation  of  lessons,  252. 

Pride  of  pupils  in  school,  182  ff. 

Primacy  as  factor  of  recall,  20. 

Principal,  duties  of,  262;  sending 
pupils  to,  134  f. 

Privileges,  as  incentives  to  attendance, 
75  f.;  as  incentives  to  study,  172; 
loss  of,  as  penalty,  132. 

Prizes,  as  incentives  to  attendance, 
75  f.;  as  incentives  to  study,  169  ff. 

Professional  duties,  251  ff. 

Professional  study,  253  ff. 

Program,  for  first  day,  24;  daily, 
50  ff.;  necessity  of  adhering  to, 
69  f.;  in  Batavia  system,  219  ff. 

Promotions  as  Incentives,  174  ff. 

Psychology,  educational,  3  f . ;  of  atten- 
tion, 138  ff.;  of  habit,  14  f.;  of 
ideals,  185  f,;  and  observation,  277. 

Punctuality,  77  ff. 

Punishments,  105  ff. 

Question-and-answer  recitation,  211. 
Questioning,  art  of,  212. 
Questions,  examination,  245  f.;  study, 
207  f. 

Rapidity  in  number  associations, 
237  f. 

Raub,  a.  N.,  57,  58. 

Reading,  6,  193  ff.;  professional, 
254  f. 

Reasoning,  capacity  for,  160. 

Rebukes  as  penalties,  131. 

Recesses,  providing  for,  in  program, 
52  f.;   and  discipbne,  86,  104. 

Recitation  lesson,  210  ff. 

Reform  in  schools,  14. 

Relaxation,  86. 

Repression  in  childhood,  31. 

Results,  responsibility  for,  263;  spec- 
tacular, 184;  testing,  225  ff. 

Retroversion,  to  lower  grade,  177.  ^ 

Rice,  J.  M.,  248. 

Rivalry,  169  ff. 

Roark,  R.  N.,  58,  123. 


INDEX 


32J 


JlOBBINS,  C.  L.,  279. 

Room,  as  technical  term,  i. 

Routine,  of  classroom,  37  ff.,  283; 
in  group  action,  17  f.;  justification 
of,  33  ff.;  as  factor  in  discipline, 
102;  of  teacher's  life,  250  ff. 

RuEDiGER,  W.  C,  210. 

Rural  schools,  program  of,  64  ff.; 
supervision  of,  265;  classification 
of,  27. 

Scholarship,  as  affected  by  absence, 
79  f.;  as  a  factor  in  discipline,  97. 
School  city,  290  ff. 
School  day,  length  of,  51. 
School  duties  of  teacher,  250  li'. 
School  exhibits,  184. 
School  organization,  261  ff. 
School  year,  length  of,  51. 

SCHWICKERATH,  R.,   1 79,    1 80. 

Scolding,  as  negative  incentive,  165  f. 
Seats,  conditions  to  be  fixlfilled  by, 

82. 
Seeley,  L.,  123,  178. 
Selection,  natural,  in  instinct,  100. 
Self-preservation,  instinct  of,   159. 
Shaw,  E.  R.,  81,  85. 
Signals  for  class  movements,  38  f. 
Simultaneous  system  of  instruction, 

I  f.,  II,  189  ff. 
Sitting,  proper  position  in,  81  f. 
Slant  writing,  postvure  for,  84. 
Smith,  J.  H.,  85. 
Smyser,  S.,  223. 
Snell,  S.,  85. 

Snowballing,  control  of,  87. 
Social  duties  of  teacher,  258. 
Social  efficiency,  186,  226  f.;  as  aim  of 

education,  7  f. 
Social  instincts,  174,  180  ff. 
Social  values  of  studies,  247. 
Social  vs.  primitive  life,  no. 
Social  vs.  scholastic  standards,  175. 
Soft  pedagogy,  177,  205,  218. 
Speech,  testing  habits  of,  235. 
Spelling,  teaching  of,  195  f.;  testing, 

238  ff. 
Spencer,  H.,  106,  107  ff. 
Spontaneity,  3. 
Sports,    permitted    and     prohibited, 

87  f. 

Y 


Springfield  questions  in  arithmetic, 

299  f. 
Standards,  social  vs.  scholastic,  175; 

of  good  teaching,  225. 
Starting  aright,  importance  of,  20  f. 
Strong,  N.,  291. 
Study,  art  of,  207  f. 
Study  lesson,  206  ff. 
Study   period,    problem   of,    189   ff., 

207  ff.;  in  Batavia  system,  221  f. 
Study  questions,  207. 
Substitution  vs.  repression,  103  f. 
Suggestion,  in  breeding  moral  disease, 

90. 
Superintendent,  duties  of,  261  f. 
Supervisors,  duties  of,  264  ff. 
Suspensions,  132  f. 
System,  economy  of,  13  ff. ;  in  educa- 
tion, 261  ff. 

Tact  as  factor  in  discipline,  94  f. 

Tardiness,  6,  77  ff. 

Taylor,  J.  S.,  124,  125,  174. 

Teacher,  relation  to  superior  officers, 
262  ff. 

Teachers'  associations,  »$$. 

Teaching  as  a  creative  art,  273. 

Tests,  for  educative  values,  9;  f<w 
results,  225  ff. 

Text-book  instruction,  189  ff. 

Text-book  lesson,  192  ff. 

Text-books,  difficulties  in  use  of, 
191;  classification  of,  190;  tech- 
nique of  use,  192  ff. 

Theory  vs.  practice,  275  ff. 

Thorndike,  E.  L.,  103, 165,  238, 245. 
246. 

Thoughtlessness,  as  excuse  for  iius> 
demeanors,  95  f. 

Tidiness  of  classroom,  45  f. 

Time  sense  in  children,  78. 

Toilets,  inspection  of,  91. 

Tompkins,  A.,  123. 

Topical  analysis,  209. 

Topical  recitation,  211  f. 

Topics,  study,  209. 

Ungraded  school  (see  Rural  school). 

Vaccination,  89. 
Variety,  desire  for,  147  ff. 


322 


INDEX 


Vertical  writing,  posture  in,  84. 
Visiting  schools,  183  f.,  255  f. 
Vividness  in  assigning  lessons,  195. 
Voice  of  teacher,  loi  f. 
Volitional  action,  159. 

Waste,  sources  of,  11. 
Whipple,  G.  M.,  279. 
White,  E.  E.,  67,  12a,  123,  161. 
Will,  159. 


Worry,  avoidance  of,  99  ff.;  evils  o^ 
in  pupils,  176. 

Wraps,  collection  of,  23. 

Writing,  in  study  period,  210;  pos- 
ture in,  83  f. 

Written  work,  supervision  of,  43, 
252  f.;  neatness  of,  47  f.;  testing, 
232  ff.;  301  ff. 

Young,  R.  G.,  193. 


Methods  in  Elementary  Education 

A  SERIES  OF  EDUOATIONAL  BOOKS  US  TWO  GROUPS  COVEEDTO  THE 

GENERAL  PRDfOIPLES  OF  METHOD  AND  ITS  SPECIAL 

APPLICATIONS  TO  THE  COMMON  SCHOOL 

By   DR.    CHARLES    A.    McMURRY 


THE  ELEMENTS  OF  GENERAL  METHOD  ...  90  cents 
THE  METHOD  OF  THE  RECITATION   (By  C.  A.  and 

F.  M.  McMurry) 90  cents 

SPECIAL  METHOD  IN  THE  READING  OF  COMPLETE 

ENGLISH  CLASSICS 75  cents 

SPECIAL    METHOD    IN    PRIMARY    READING    AND 

ORAL  WORK  WITH   STORIES 60  cents 

SPECIAL  METHOD  IN  GEOGRAPHY        ....  70  cents 

SPECIAL  METHOD  IN  HISTORY 75  cents 

SPECIAL  METHOD  IN  ELEMENTARY  SCIENCE   .        .  75  cents 

SPECIAL  METHOD  IN  ARITHMETIC       ....  70  cents 

SPECIAL  METHOD  IN  LANGUAGE 70  cents 

EXCURSIONS  AND  LESSONS  IN  HOME  GEOGRAPHY  50  cents 
TYPE   STUDIES   FROM   THE    GEOGRAPHY    OF   THE 

UNITED   STATES 50  cents 

IN  PREPARATION 

SCIENCE  LESSONS  FOR  PRIMARY  GRADES 
SPECIAL  METHOD  IN  MANUAL  TRAINING  AND  CONSTRUC- 
TIVE WORK 

The  McMurry  Series  is  the  most  extended  and  thoroughgoing  attempt 
ever  made  in  this  country  to  work  out  the  manifold  problems  arising  from 
our  modern  congested  curriculum. 

These  books  represent  a  further  development  of  previous  attempts  at 
once  to  enrich  and  simplify  the  elementary  course  of  study.  They  accept 
the  best  things  in  the  work  of  the  Herbartians,  Colonel  Parker,  and  Pro- 
fessor Dewey,  as  a  basis  for  the  selection  of  large  and  important  unities, 
or  apperception  centres,  for  each  study,  similar  to  the  "types"  selected 
by  the  naturalists  for  comparative  study.  Not  only  is  the  idea  of  these 
unities  presented,  but  they  are  actually  marked  out,  and  in  the  volumes  on 
"Special  Methods"  are  methodically  treated  in  all  their  manifold  rela- 
tions. The  Series  as  a  whole  has  no  rival  in  the  field,  and  is  certain  to 
exert  a  deep  and  expanding  influence  upon  American  education. 


Books  on  Education  by 

HERMAN   HARRELL   HORNE,   Ph.D. 

Professor  of  Philosophy  in  Dartmouth  College 

THE  PHILOSOPHY 
OF  EDUCATION 

This  volume  is  a  connected  series  of  discussions  on  the  foundations 
of  education  in  the  related  sciences  of  biology,  physiology,  sociology, 
psychology,  and  philosophy.  It  is  not  another  of  the  many  current 
manuals  of  practice,  but  a  thoroughgoing  interpretation  of  the  nature, 
place,  and  meaning  of  education  in  our  world.  The  newest  points  of 
view  in  the  realms  of  natural  and  mental  science  are  applied  to  the 
understanding  of  educational  problems.  The  field  of  education  is  care- 
fully divided,  and  the  total  discussion  is  devoted  to  the  philosophy  of 
education,  in  distinction  from  its  history,  science,  and  art.  The  con- 
ceptions of  evolution,  society,  and  genetic  psychology  shed  their  light 
up>on  educational  phenomena,  yielding  in  the  end  a  comprehensive 
definition  of  what  education  is.  The  various  conflicting  modem  educa- 
tional opinions  are  organized  to  a  considerable  extent,  and  are  made 
to  appear  as  partial  truths  of  a  common  system.  The  whole  is  suffused 
with  the  spirit  of  an  idealistic  philosophy  in  which  education  is  finally 
made  to  yield  its  ultimate  meaning  as  to  the  origin,  nature,  and  destiny 
of  man. 

Goih,  ilmo,  $tJ50  net 

THE  PSYCHOLOGICAL  PRINCIPLES 
OF  EDUCATION 

"  Professor  Herman  Harrell  Home,  of  Dartmouth  College,  has  given 
a  thoughtful,  suggestive,  practical  exposition  of  the  subject  on  a  logical 
basis,  and  his  book  should  be  in  the  hands  of  every  teacher  who  aims  at 
success,  not  financial  success,  but  success  as  a  teacher,  in  his  or  her 
chosen  profession.  The  volume  is  a  remarkably  able  one."  —  Puilic 
Ledger^  Philadelphia. 

Cloth,  t2mo,  $tJ5  net 


The  Author  says  :  "  I  may  remark,  by  the  way,  concerning  the  relation^ 
ship  of  my  two  books  to  each  other,  that,  whereas  the  first  was  mostly  theory 
with  some  practice,  this  is  mostly  practice  with  some  theory/ 


THE    MACMILLAN   COMPANY 

64-66  FIPTH  AVENUE,  NEW  TOSS 


Books  on  Education  by 

CHARLES  DE   GARMO 

Professor  of  the  Science  and  Art  of  Education 
Cornell  University 

PRINCIPLES  OF 
SECONDARY  EDUCATION 

STUDIES  —  Discusses  the  educational  value  of  the  studies  in  the 
secondary  school,  separately,  —  and  the  best  combinations  of  the 
studies,  —  keeping  in  view  both  training  for  insight  and  training 
for  knowledge. 

Cloth      12mo     $1.25  net 

INTEREST  AND  EDUCATION 

THE  DOCTRINE  OF  INTEREST  and  its  concrete  application. 

"  Professor  De  Garmo  has  made  a  distinct  and  immensely  valuable 
contribution  to  the  literature  of  education."  —  Gunton's  Magazine. 

"The  book  is  carefully  written  and  will  be  found  very  helpful  to 
teachers  who  are  trying  to  get  the  philosophy  of  their  art."  — Journal 
of  Pedagogy. 

Cloth      12mo     $1.00  not 

HERBARTS  OUTLINES  OF 
EDUCATIONAL  DOCTRINE 

Translated  by  Alexis  F.  Lange,  Ph.D.,  Associate  Professor  of 
English  and  Scandinavian  Philology,  and  Dean  of  the  Faculty  of 
the  College  of  Letters,  University  of  California. 
Annotated  by  Professor  Charles  De  Garmo. 

"  It  is  a  thoroughly  twentieth-century  American  book.  It  is  a  better 
presentation  of  the  best  that  Herbart  has  thought,  and  at  the  same  time 
a  fuller  adaptation  of  that  thought  to  American  needs  of  the  present 
day,  than  any  other  book  I  know  of."  —  Professor  Herman  T.  Lukens, 
Southwestern  State  Normal  School,  California,  Pa. 

"Such  a  translation,  adapted  by  discriminating  annotation  to  lead 
American  teachers  to  see  the  application  of  these  principles  to  Ameri- 
can schools,  is  very  desirable.  The  bibliographical  references  scattered 
throughout  and  the  skilful  annotation  add  very  greatly  to  the  value  of 
the  work."  —  Professor  J.  W.  Jenks,  Cornell  University,  Ithaca,  N.Y. 

Cloth      12mo     $1.25  net 


THE   MACMILLAN   COMPANY 

6^66  FIFTH  AYENTJE,  NEW  70BK 


Important   Books  on   Education 


BUTLER'S  THE  MEANING  OF  EDUCATION         .        .        .$i.oo 

CHUBB'S  THE  STUDY  AND  TEACHING  OF  ENGLISH       .  i.oo  net 

CUBBERLEY'S  SYLLABUS  OF  HISTORY  OF  EDUCATION  2.60  net 

DUTTON'S  SOCIAL  PHASES  OF  EDUCATION       .        .        .  1.25 

HANUS'S  EDUCATIONAL  AIMS  AND  VALUES    .        .        .1.00 

HERBART'S  OUTLINES  OF  EDUCATIONAL  DOCTRINE    .  1.25  net 

HERRICK'S  THE    MEANING   AND    PRACTICE  OF   COM- 
MERCIAL EDUCATION 1.25  net 

KING'S    PERSONAL    AND    IDEAL    ELEMENTS  IN   EDU- 
CATION    1.50  net 

KIRKPATRICK'S  FUNDAMENTALS  OF  CHILD  STUDY      .  1.25  net 

MONROE'S  SOURCE  BOOK  OF  THE  HISTORY  OF  EDU- 
CATION    2.25  net 

OPPENHEIM'S  MENTAL  GROWTH  AND  CONTROL    .        .  i.oo  net 

DEVELOPMENT  OF  THE  CHILD 1.25  net 

RED  WAY'S  THE  NEW  BASIS  OF  GEOGRAPHY    .        .        .  1.00  net 

ROWE'S  THE  PHYSICAL  NATURE  OF  THE  CHILD  .        .1.00 

ROYCE'S  OUTLINES  OF  PSYCHOLOGY  .        .        .        .  i.cx)  net 

SHAW'S  SCHOOL  HYGIENE i.oo  net 

SMITH'S  TEACHING  OF  ELEMENTARY  MATHEMATICS  .  i.oo  net 


PUBLISHED    BY 

THE   MACMILLAN  COMPANY 

64-66  Fifth  Avenue,  New  Tork 


ONE  MONTH  USE 

PLEASE  RETURN  TO  DESK 
FROM  WHICH  BORROWED 

EDUCATION-PSYCHOLOGY 
LIBRARY 

—       This  book  is  due  on  the  last  date  stamped  below,  or 

on  the  date  to  which  renewed. 

1-month  loans  may  be  renewed  by  calling  642-4209 

Renewals  and  recharges  may  be  made  4  days  prior 

to  due  date. 

ALL  BOOKS  ARE  SUBJECT  TO  RECALL  7  DAYS 

9  AFTER  DATE  CHECKED  OUT. 


^RY 


jelow. 


rjUL7    197S 


MAV  PE 


AFTER 


MAf- 


M 


15lHm 


MAR^ 


REC'D  OCT   2  79 


LD 


ym 


LD  21A-30m-5,'75 
(S5877L) 


General  Library 

University  of  California 

Berkeley 


ID  JO^/fb 


£yvc 


THE  UNIVERSITY  OF  CALIFORNIA  LIBRARY 


I 


